DUMBER 1. SPRIIVO 1836. 

THE 

AMERICAN NATIONS; 

OR, 

Outlines of A National History; 

OF THE 
ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS 

OF 

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 




yx* 4* 
Of this wide Western Hemisphera^\) 

herejk -L 

^SSv C\* 

^*^^>-^ * O*illf ts 

; T^rsss- - -- -^ 



Let us retrace the history ; TT J **/y j ^/ 

Of all the Nations dwelling herejj^ -*-* * "* ^ * f/* 

Let us recall the memory 



FIRST NUMBER, OR VOMJME: 

GENERALITIES AND ANNALS. 



BY PROF. C. S* RAFINESQUE, 



PHILADEI.PHIA, 

PUBLISHED BY C. S. RAFINESQUE, 

NO. 110 NORTH TENTH STREET, 

SOLD BY THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS, 

AND IN LONDON BY O. RICH, 
IN PARIS BY MEILHAC & BAILLERE. 

183G 



PROSPECTUS. 

Published quarterly at Five Dollars in 
advance for Six Numbers or Volumes, simi 
lar to this, of nearly 300 pages each sep 
arate Number sold for one Dollar, or more 
when they will contain maps and illustra 
tions. 

A list of Agents will be given hereafter. 
At present the principal Booksellers may 
act as such. 

The Names ot the Subscribers will be 
printed in a subsequent Number. 

It is contemplated to conclude these an 
nals and their illustrations in 12 Numbers 
or Volumes. Therefore the whole cost to 
subscribers will only be f 10, for which a 
complete American Historical Library will 
be obtained. 

By remitting $5 to the author, six Vol 
umes are secured whatever be their future 
price, and will be sent by mail: a similar 
sum will be due when the 7th number is 
issued. Those who may prefer to pay $10 
at once, will be deemed Patrons of the 
work. 

Whoever subscribes and pays for 5 sets, 
is entitled to a 6th gratis. Agents will be 
allowed 20 per cent commission. 

The price of this Number by itself is One 
Dollar, or Five Dollars for Six copies. 

It contains an introduction, general view, 
account of materials and cataclysms, the 
Linapi and Haytian annals, with the Hay- 
tian Language, notes, tables, &c. 




THE 

AMERICAN NATIONS-, 

OR, 

OUTLINES OF THEIR 
GENERAL HISTORY, 

ANCIENT AN MODERN: 

INCLUDING THE WHOLE HISTORY OF THE EARTH 
AND MANKIND IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE; 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF AMERICAN HISTORY; 
THE ANNALS, TRADITIONS, CIVILIZATION, 
LANGUAGES, &c., OF ALL THK AMERI 
CAN NATIONS, TR1BKS, EMPIRES, 
AND STATES. 

With Maps, Plates, Vines, and Plans of Monuments, 
Tables, Notes, and Illustrations. 

BY C. S. RAFINESaUE: 

Professor of Historical and Natural Sciences, 
Member of many Learned Societies in Paris, Bor 
deaux, Bruxels, Bonn, Vienna, Zurich, Naples, &c, 
in Europe. Philadelphia, New York. Cincinnati, 
Lexington, Nashville, &c., in America. The Ameri 
can Antiquarian Society, &c. 



FIRST VOJLUME. 



" All we have hitherto learnt respecting the ancient state of the 
" Natives of the Ntw Continent is nothing in comparison to the 
" light that will be one day thrown on this subjeet, if we succeed in 
* bringing together the materials now scattered over both worlds, 
"that have survived the ages of ignorance and barbarism." Hum- 
Mdt. 



C. S. RAFINESQUE, 110 NORTH TENTH ST. 

PRINTED BY F. TURNER, 367 MARKET ST. 

1836 




ENTERED according to act of Congress, 
in the year 1836, by C. S. RAFINESQUE, in 
the Clerk s office of the District Court for 
the Eastern District of the State of Penn 
sylvania. 



TO THE 

SOCIETY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
OF PARIS. 

GENTLEMEN : 

To you I dedicate this work, result of long and 
weary researches. This homage is due to the public 
approbation you gave to ray first analogous labor, ray 
Memoirs or Series of Researches on the Origiu of 
Mankind : which I endeavored to trace philologically 
to the centre of Asia. I had announced long ago this 
history of the Americans, the inhabitants of a whole 
hemisphere. I had quoted it in my other works. 
I now offer the outlines of it under your auspices. 

You have furnished the example of cultivating 
along with Geography, all the auxiliary and connected 
sciences, which may enlighten it : particularly the 
ancient and modern Ethnography, with Philology one 
of its bases. You will see that I have followed this 
practice in availing myself of all the sciences to en 
lighten the history of mankind, the Ethnography and 
annals of nations : above all Philology with Chrono 
logy and Geography. 

The origins and annals of the black nations, and 
of the American nations, were two subjects quite ob 
scure and neglected, or the least known, of the history 
of mankind. Nobody has undertaken, as yet, the 
history of the Negro nations: a labor so difficult and 
luckless as to be despised. 

My memoirs on this despised race, may perhaps 
furnish the bases of such history. All the histories 
of America are mere fragments or dreams. I have 
perceived the possibility and necessity to write a ge 
neral and faithful history of this hemisphere. I now 
offer the results of this weary labor. 



2 DEDICATION. 

You will perceive in it many things which have 
already been said; since it is impossible to write his 
tory without repetitions; but my plan, the whole point 
of view, and the results which I draw, are my own. 
You will also find many things which were never told 
or were very improperly presented. I shall destroy 
many errors, hypotheses and conjectures : since in 
them alone often consist our works upon America. 

But I shall not say every thing; where so much 
is to be related, all cannot be told : and I shall be 
compelled to neglect several minute details. I wish 
to trace faithful outlines, rather than write a bulky 
work, like our pretending universal histories, which 
however, dwell only upon one-third of the globe or 
even less. 

1 dislike long quotations, and shall seldom em 
ploy them : I quote only when authorities are required 
to render an opinion more forcible. Every where else 
I merely give the abridgement of my great historical 
materials in manuscript, which are arranged by ex 
tracts of authorities, and where they may be sought 
for in case of need. 

Accept, Gentlemen, the respectful homage of 

THE AUTHOR. 



PHILADELPHIA, ) 
October 22d, 1833. $ 



PREFACE. 

IN venturing to open a new path in his 
torical researches on the earth and man 
kind, it is incumbent on the bold pioneer 
to state his views, or at least Ho furnish 
adequate reasons for deviating so far from 
the usual track. 

While every science and branch of 
knowledge is improving, and has, with rapid 
strides, made continual advances for fifty 
years past or more, is the noble muse of 
history to be kept stationary forever, by 
compilers and classical plodders ? and for 
America by the foes of the ancient and 
modern nations of a whole hemisphere? 
No. ... it is time to improve history as 
every thing else ; to seek the truth and 
tell it. 

As the human mind is yet more swayed 
by authorities, than genius or wisdom; 
high authorities will be given instead of 
long explanations. Ever since the time of 
Juvenal, it has been an ungrateful task to 
write historical truth : men often prefer to 
be amused, deceived, or helped in strife ; 
than to be instructed, or receive sketches 
of former times. Yet there is always a 
secret delight in viewing faithful pictures 
of ages past, of our ancestors on earth, and 
our predecessors on the soil of our homes, or 
where we spend the scenes of our own lives. 

The worthies who have been taken for mo 
dels or guides in this arduous undertaking, 
are Solomon, Moses, Job, St. Paul, St. Aug 
ustine, Plato, Niebuhr, Humboldt, Malcolm, 



4 PREFACE. 

Gebelin, D Olivet, Bryant, Adelung, Drum- 
mond, Pritchard, Champollion, Klaproth, 
Jones, Wilford, Akbar, Price, Bailly, Rus 
sell, Beattie, Herder, Carli, Barton &c. 
They shall speak for themselves, in quota 
tions of their own words, instead of elaborate 
reflexions. 

From God comes wisdom, knowledge 
and understanding SOLOMON Prov. 2. v. ft. 
Those who will seek early wisdom will find 
her SOL. Pr. 8. v. 17. Hear instruction 
and be wise, and refuse it not SOL. Pr. 8. 
v. 33. 

ZE this is. SFR book. THU symbol. 
LDTH progeny. ADM mankind. BIUM 
in manifestation. BRA in realization. 
ALEIM angels. ADM mankind. BDM- 
UTH in identic passage. ALEIM angels. 
OSHE worked. ATHU such symbol. 
MOSES. Genesis ch, 5. v. 1. Genuine mo 
saic words, and genuine translation word 
for word. 

When I laid the foundations of the earth 
. . . the morning stars sung together, and 
the sons of God shouted for joy. SPEECH 
or GOD HIMSELF IN JOB ch. 38., Vulgar 
translation: the original is still more 
striking. 

The Hebrew philosophy divided the 
world in two hemispheres, the upper was 
SHMIM or Sham-aim^ the Heavens the 
lower was SHEOL ; but SHEOL-TAHTITH 
or inferior, was the place of bad souls and 
Rephaim. (The true SHEOL was Ame 
rica, or the southern hemisphere). The 



PREFACE. 5 

Jesuit Sanetius thought that Job had spo 
ken of America. PETERS, Dissertation 
on Job. 

It is very possible for modern learning 
to understand better the books of Moses, 
Orpheus, and those of all ancient nations, 
than the Egyptian, Greek and Roman 
commentators : because the intellectual 
knowledge of languages is improving ; and 
those ancient writers have, by their genius, 
approximated to us, while removed from 
the blindness of their ages. GEBELIN, 
Primitive World. 

The letter kills, but the spirit gives life. 
ST. PAUL Corinth. II. ch. 3. v. 6. We 
use great plainness of speech, and not as 
MOSES who put a veil before his face, that 
the children of Israel could ,not stedfastly 
look to the end of that which is abolished. 
Cor. II. 3. v. 12, 13. and even unto 
this day, when Moses is read, the veil is 
upon their heart, nevertheless when it shall 
please the Lord, this veil shall be taken 
away. Cor. II. 3. v. 15, 16. 

To have a right apprehension of words 
or names, is a good step to the knowledge 
of things. PLATO in Cratylo. 

The confusion of words in the cause of 
all disputes and sects. D ISRAELI. 

The obscure ages demand bold hypo 
theses or total neglect, contradictions are 
inseparable from days of tradition. There 
exist no instance of a people really savage 
having spontaneously advanced to civiliza- 



PREFACE. 



tion. Savage men are degenerated or 
imperfect creatures. . .Words and even few 
are the rules of analogies in nations. 
NIEBUHR, Roman History, Vol I. 

It is manifest that there are noble re 
sources (for history) still remaining, if we 
will but apply ourselves to diligent enquiry. 
There are in every climate some scat 
tered fragments of original history, some 
traces of a primitive and universal lan 
guage. Even America would contribute 
to this purpose, the more rude the monu 
ments, the more ancient they may possi 
bly prove, and afford greater light on 
enquiry. BRYANT, MYTHOLOGY; conclu 
sion of the work. 

To accumulate materials without gene 
ralizing any idea is a method as sterile in 
history as in natural philosophy. The 
geology of America does not differ essen 
tially from that of the old world, the strata 
and the emersion from the waters are not 
newer : species long extinct have also pre 
ceded those now peopling the earth, the 
waters and the air. The problem of the 
first population of America is no more the 
province of history, than the questions on 
the origin of plants and animals. When 
we shall better know the brown men of 
Africa, with those of the north and east of 
Asia, the American nations will be less 
insulated They have extended from lat. 
68 N. to 55 S. or 123 degress of latitude, 
in plains and mountains, assuming various 
complexions and stature. If Africa has 



PREFACE. 7 

140 languages, America has still more; 
resembling in this, the Caucasus, Italy be 
fore the Romans ; but they are susceptible 
of classification into families. The multi 
plicity of languages is a very ancient phe 
nomenon, perhaps those which we call 
American, belong no more to America, than 
the Magyar and Choud or Finn to Europe. 
HUMBOLDT, American Researches, In 
troduction. 

If we desire to be fully informed of a 
nation s history, we must not reject the 
fables under which the few traces that re 
main of its origin are concealed. These, 
however extravagant, always merit atten 
tion they have an influence on the character 
of the people to whom they relate. First 
words of MALCOLM, History of Persia. 

The Chinese often call the king, the 
kingdom and the nation by the same name, 
nay, even also the capital city. REGIS, 
History of Corea, in Duhalde China. 

The cradle or first seat of mankind was 
in Asia, between lat. 30 and 50 ; which is 
also the native place of all the domestic 
animals, fruits and grains. Adelung, Bail- 
ly, Higgins, $c. 

The Genesis was a compilation of Moses 
from older annals, some perhaps by Noah 
himself. Revd. Mr. Davies, Herder. 

The patriarchs of Moses and Pitris of 
Hindus were nations, personifications of 
early tribes. Drummond, D Olivet, Wil- 
ford. 

The early gods and kings of Greece and 



8 PREFACE. 

Italy, were probably tribes, the chiefs and 
followers being called by the same name. 
This is true also of the various Hercules 
or wandering Heros. Dodwell, Jamieson. 

Trying them by the languages, the Ame 
ricans will appear to be children of the 
earliest human families. BARTON, Physi 
cal Journal. 

A flood of historical light has lately flown 
from India and Asia ; but we lack still the 
real annals of Thibet : Polynesia and Ame 
rica may yet supply many facts and fill 
some blanks. The original seat of civili 
zation was between the Ganges and the 
Nile, the Caspian and the ocean. The 
first tribes after the flood were fishermen 
and Frugivores, next hunters who did 
spread north east as far as America, and 
shepherds south west, as far as Cape of 
Good hope. PRITCHARD, Physical His 
tory of Man. 

The genealogy of the kings of England 
is derived direct from Noah in 25 genera 
tions only, to Cerdic first king of Wessex 
in 495 ; and through SCEAF born in the 
ark ! giving more than 125 years for each 
generation, which is impossible, arid proves 
these names, successive tribes or dynasties 
till Woden. INGRAM, Saxon Chronicle. 

The Ethiopians, Nubians and Egyptians 
are a peculiar race, perhaps in Africa be 
fore the flood. CHAMPOLLION, Systcme 
Hieroglyphique. 

The languages are better guides than 
physical characters for researches on man- 



PREFACE. 9 

kind, and roots more important than gram 
mars. KLAPROTH. 

Language belongs to man from origin^ 
he never was a dumb animal, else he would 
always have remained so. All languages 
have something in common, and something 
peculiar. BEATTIE, Theory of Language. 

A thousand nations with a thousand 
idioms, are spread over a thousand places 
on earth. Thrown against each other like 
the waves of the sea, they blend and tend 
to unity. Several rival languages are 
formed, polished by contract, which over 
spread the earth ; and break to pieces as 
well as nations and empires. Others arise 
from their ruins, and strive again for ascen 
dency, until at last a people and language, 
son and daughter of all the previous nations 
and idioms, heirs of their dominion and 
wealth; shall perhaps invade the whole 
earth, and produce again the unity of 
speech and rule. D OLIVET, End of He 
brew Grammar. 

It is said, In the beginning God made 
Heaven and Earth, that is to say, the 
seeds of heaven and earth, since their mat 
ter was yet in confusion in a potential 
way. ST. AUGUSTINE on Genesis. 

In the whole Mosaic text there is no 
Eden, no tree, no apple, no rib, no woman, 
no snake, no ark. . . . but other words 
thus improperly translated to veil the 
sense. . . . Adam is not a man, but man 
kind, Aish intellectual men, Ashe mate or 
potent will, HUE our Eve is living exist- 



10 PREFACE. 

ence ! . . . The names of patriarchs are 
all expressive of operations of mankind. . . 
Yet Moses Unity of God, and Belief in 
Immortality is evident throughout ; al 
though so obscured by the translation as 
to have been doubted. . . . Moses with 
his veils is made absurd ; raising the veils 
he appears wise, deep, consistent, even 
more enlightened than our age on many 
points. D OLIVET, Notes on Genesis. 

Whenever the numerical letters of Mo 
ses are taken in their material sense, inex 
tricable difficulties have arisen ; and which 
is the true version out of the 3 is doubtful : 
the deep mosaic meaning and import shall 
never be known, until the ancient lost sci 
ence of numbers is restored, which was 
once known from China to Egypt and 
Europe. D OLIVET, last note. 

Eblis or Satan was disgraced from Hea 
ven, where Rezoan was his successor, and 
exiled to Seyestan, with the Snake and 
Peacock tribes his followers, Adam was 
exiled to Ceylon, Eve to Arabia &c. 
PRICE, Translation of Abijayffer s His 
tory of Arabia. 

Menu was Adam, but there are seven 
Menus, the seventh was Noah. SIR W. 
JONES, Laws of Menu. WILFORD. 

The Babylonian empire begun 530 years 
after the flood, 2790 years after Adam. 
RUSSELL, Connection of Sacred History. 

Primitive history is under a veil, involved 
in fables; but all ancient fables have a his 
torical base. BAILLY, on Atlantis. 



PREFACE. 1 1 

Before Adam God created the Dives 
(angels) who had 72 kings or Sol-i-man 
for 7000 years, and after them the Peris 
govern for 2000 years, HERBELOT, Ori 
ental Librury. 

Noah dwelt near Cabul and Cashmir, his 
Ararat was in the Imalaya mountains. 
SHUCKFORD,WELLS, Sacred Geography fyc. 

As early as 4600 years before Christ, 
there was a communication between the 
Americans and the east by astronomical 
coincidences. CARLI, American Letters. 

Two great wars or Mahabharat followed 
by dispersions of mankind, happened in In 
dia in 3236 and 2501 (before our era) ; 
and the Indian solar empire of Berhut at 
Inderput now Delhi, ascends 16 genera 
tions beyond the first, at least to 3750 
years B. C. Institutes of the Emperor 
AKBAR, translated by GLADWIN. 

Such are my guides. Are not those 
quotations sufficient? 

For my rules of criticism, I have taken 
for guide, Isaac Taylor s excellent history 
of the transmission of ancient books, Lon 
don, 1827. They may be analysed as fol 
lows, from his own summary. 

1. If the records of antiquity could be de 
prived of their authority, we should also be 
deprived of intelligence, liberty and religion! 

2. Dates are of little importance; being 
anciently expressed by letters, they are 
liable to errors. The Greeks and all eas 
tern Christians reckon 5508 years from 
Adam to Christ. 



12 PREFACE. 

3. Geography and natural facts are open 
to criticism. 

4. Wonders, monsters, miracles, are not 
always fabulous, but doubtful. Natural 
phenomena if unconnected with omens, 
may be right. 

5. Speeches and secret motives do not 
belong to history, they are ornaments of 
rhetoric or mere surmises. 

6. Facts are only to be attended to, they 
become more certain, if corroborated by 
monuments, inscriptions, coins &c. 

7. The silence of a historian does not 
invalidate the assertions of others. 

8. Contradictions, exagerations, preju 
dices, party spirit, national dislike, must 
be allowed for. The arrogance of the 
Greeks and Chinese, who call barbarians, 
nations as good as they, is shameful, and 
must be noticed, as well as errors arising 
from hiding defeats &c. 

The independent sources of history be 
sides writers are, 1. remains of literature. 
2. Chronological documents and astrono 
mical calculations, 3. Natural features of 
nature and mankind, with permanent phy 
sical facts, 4. Permanent institutions, man 
ners, monuments, languages &c. Lastly, 
remote facts may be certain ; although a 
long while elapsed : whatever be the con 
sequence; and even if the first evidence 
may have been erroneously transmitted, or 
not perspicuous. But accumulated evi 
dence ought never to be doubted. 






&*?*&. &} ? & 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION. Natural Re 
gions of America. Ancient and Mo 
dern Nations. Historical Periods. 

Since our Globe is better known, it is no 
longer divided into 4 Continents ; but must 
be divided into 3 great parts of the world 
or Tholomeres, each containing 3 lesser 
divisions or Geotomes, viz: 

I. PROTIIOLIA or THOLARKON, the ancient 
\vorld, containing, 1. Asia, 2. Africa, 3. 
Europe, which are continents. 

II. NEOTHOLIA or HESPERIA, the new 
world, containing, 1. Atalia or North Ame 
rica, 2. Columbia or South America, which 
are two continents . . . and 3. the Antilles 
OP West Indies, the Archipelagos to the 
East and North, Carib and Lucayes islands, 

III. OCEANIA or THOLONESIA, the Oceanic 
or Insular world, containing, 1. Australia, 
which is a continent, 2. Meganesia or the 
great Islands from Japan till Ceylan and 
Madagascar, 3. Polynesia, the small Eas 
tern Islands. These two last form immense 
groups of archipelagos, or clustered islands. 

Therefore the terrestrial world includes 
6 continents, and 3 groups of archipelagos, 
forming 9 geotomes. 

It is of NEOTHOLIA that I write the history, 
of this third of the world, named likewise 
2 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

America, or the two Americas ; a double 
continent, crowned in the East and towards 
the two poles by archipelagos. 

Such an extensive part of the world, 
reaching nearly to both poles, offers to 
our notice and researches a crowd of ob 
jects, nations and events. If our universal 
histories which are confined to a small part 
only of the old world, form already bulky 
collections; it would be equally so with 
America, if we had complete annals of it. 
But, notwithstanding the scanty materials 
which have reached us on its ancient histo 
ry ; the modern annals and the old traditions 
of the nations dwelling there, afford many 
facts : and many auxiliary means contribute 
to enlarge the previous history, in unfolding 
the origins and revolutions of the nations 
and empires of both Americas. Thus, we 
shall often have to make a choice or abridge 
these materials, particularly in these out 
lines of a general history. 

Formerly, historians wrote chiefly chroni 
cles of the empires, kingdoms and republics; 
which were often mere biographies of mo- 
narchs and chiefs, conquerors and tyrants. 
We begin now to think more of mankind 
and the nations. I shall follow this princi 
ple, and trace at last a national history of 
America; this subject is so new, that we 
have not even yet a good history of man 
kind in Europe, much less in Asia and 
Africa. 

Having dwelt in this continent since 






IATRGDUCTICX. 15 



having settled in it since 1815, and having 
travelled in it every year to study the monu 
ments and productions thereof: it was since 
1818 that I began to conceive the possibility 
of raising the veil that was thrown over 
the annals of this third of the world. I 
have visited the public libraries of Wash 
ington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New-York, 
Boston, Albany, Lexington, &c. to consult 
all the historical works on America, and 
every other part of the world. I have read 
nearly all the travels in America and other 
distant countries. In the Ebeling library 
deposited in that of Cambridge University 
near Boston, I have found many ancient 
works on America, often unique in the 
United States, and very rare even in Eu 
rope. There is but a small number of rare 
works, which I have not yet been able to 
see ; I shall give a list of them, in order 
that it may be ascertained whether they 
contain facts that have escaped me. My 
researches upon the languages and monu 
ments of America, will compensate this 
unavoidable neglect, since they exceed 
whatever had been undertaken of the kind. 
I have thus endeavored to collect and com 
pare all the facts relating to my subject. 

I have not imitated, therefore, the lazy 
writers, who have pretended to give us 
histories of America, and have commonly 
produced mere sketches of it, full of ne 
glects and defects. Such were Robertson, 
Holmes, Touron, Herrera, &c., with a crowd 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

of imitators and compilers, which confine 
themselves to some years, or a single re 
gion, or the mere first Spanish invasions. 
They have, however, acquired some repu 
tation either by style or manner ; but they 
have degraded history, by giving sketches 
instead of it. We must except Herrera, 
who does not shine by the style ; but is at 
least a faithful annalist of the Spanish deeds 
and colonies during 62 years, from 1492 
till 1552. But Robertson, although praised 
for his style, is only his unfaithful and im 
perfect imitator, and the obvious slanderer 
of the American nations. 

A complete criticism of the writers on 
America, would be desirable ; but cannot 
enter into the plan of these historical out 
lines ; although it may find a place in ulte 
rior illustrations. It will be sufficient now 
to indicate that the best works, or those 
which furnish the greatest number of his 
torical materials, are the old writers and 
travellers; Since the modern historians 
and travellers (except Humboldt and a 
few more) appear to forget whatever has 
already been written on America. 

The historian of such an extensive con- 
\ tinent, should not be a mere annalist ; but 
he ought to know well all the comparative 
sciences, sisters of history, such as chrono 
logy, geograghy, biography, archeology, 
ethnography, philology, &c. He ought 
also to be a philosopher and a philanthro 
pist, to know the natural sciences which 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

become connected with history by civiliza 
tion, agriculture, and geology ; he ought, 
above all, to be impartial and a good critic, 
in order to discard national prejudices, and 
avoid the blunders of credulity or impos 
ture. What historian has ever united such 
acquirements ? I have tried to acquire 
them : Have I succeeded ? I offer my 
writings as the answer. 

My method has been to make copious 
extracts of all the authors that I read. 
These materials already form a collection 
of over one hundred books of 6000 pages 
on the history of the earth and mankind : 
whereof I avail myself for all my historical 
works. I have formed besides another col 
lection of iconographic illustrations, maps, 
plans, monuments, views, portraits, alpha 
bets, symbols, implements, costumes, &/c.; 
which may serve for proofs and atlas of 
these works, published or manuscript. This 
tellurian iconography, chiefly American, 
consists already in ten great books or port 
folios ; having little hope to be enabled to 
publish them, I wish they might be de 
posited in a great public library, where 
they might be consulted. 

Instead of beginning this history of the 
Americans by generalities, I should wish to 
conclude the work by such results ; but it 
may frequently be needful to deviate from 
this plan, and present results as they hap 
pen to arise from the facts and events. 

The different parts of the Western Hem- 

>* 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

isphere are often distantly remote, and 
insulated, or little connected in their his 
torical relations. Austral America and 
Boreal America have for instance hardly 
any historical connection: they are as 
widely separated as China and Europe; 
but all the central parts of America are 
intimately connected, above all the moun 
tain regions from Mexico to Chili, which 
offer the same relation of civilization, lan 
guages and annalogies, as the Hindu-Euro 
pean regions and nations. 

The Neotholian Hemisphere contains 
many distinct regions ; but the natural or 
physical regions are not always identic 
with the historical regions. The isthmus 
of Panama or valley of Choco does not di 
vide the nation as it does the two continents 
of America : and many groups of nations 
are intermingled throughout. The group 
of ancient ARU AC nations extended from 
near Florida through the Antilles, Guyana,. 
Brazil to Tucuman and Magellania. The 
elder group of TALA or atlantic nations 
could be traced from the Ohio to Mexico,, 
Guatimala and South America in the west. 

Notwithstanding this fact, it is useful to 
keep in mind the great natural regions of 
America, so as to trace through them the 
vicissitudes of mankind in ancient and mo 
dern times. Thus we find six such regions 
in North America, and six in South Ame 
rica, with 3 in the Antilles. 

1. Boreal region, or region of the lakes, 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

stretching across North America, from the 
straight of Behring and peninsula Alaska 
in the west, to Labrador, Canada and Nova 
Scotia in the east. It is distinguished by 
a rocky soil, many large lakes and millions 
of small ones, surrounded near the pole and 
on either side by groups of islands. Its 
southern limits are undefined, but Lake 
Erie forms one of them. 

2. The California!! or Oregon region, 
stretching from north to south along the 

1 Pacific Ocean from Fuca Strait to Mexico 

I and Guatimala. It is a region of plains 
and hills. 

3. The Mexican region or central moun 
tains and table lands from the sources of 
the Missouri to Lake Nicaragua, distin 
guished by volcanoes, a dry lofty soil, &c. 

4. The Missouri region, extending in 
vast grassy plains from latitude 50 to the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

5. The Alleghany region, stretching in 
woody hills and mountains from Maine to 
Alabama and Illinois. The Ozark moun 
tains and the whole of New England appear 
detached portions of it. 

G. The Litoral Atlantic region, stretch 
ing from Long Island to Florida, Mexico, 
Yucatan and Honduras, forming a long 
but narrow region of level plains, sands 
arid marshes, skirted by sandy shores and 
islands. 

The Antilles or West Indies, are all isl 
ands ; divided into 3 very natural groups. 



20 INTRODUCTION, 

1. The large and hilly Islands of Ja 
maica, Cuba, Hayti, Boriqircn. 

2. The Lucayes or Bahama Islands 
north of them, low and chiefly of coral 
formations. 

3. The Carib Islands east and south, 
commonly volcanic. 

The regions of South America are 1. 
That of the Andes or high volcanic moun 
tains extending from Santa Marta to the 
Island of Chiloe, stretching branches east 
as far as Cumana, and east of Peru. The 
hills of Panama from Nicaragua to Choco, 
are a detached part of it, probably once an 
island of the size of Cuba. Also the Ma- 
gellanic or Austral region, including the 
hills and islands south of Chili, all detached 
from the Andes, with the archipelagos of 
Chiloe, Chonos, Fuego, Austral, Falkland, 
<&c. often volcanic. 

2. The Atacama region, or lowlands 
along the Pacific Ocean from the valleys of 
Darieri and Choco to Chili, distinguished 
by sterility. 

3. The Pampas or region of unwooded 
plains east of the Andes from the strait of 
Magellan to Paraguay and Chaco. 

4. The region of Brazil, distinguished by 
fertile hills, mountains and valleys, forming 
a vast group of high lands connected to the 
Andes by an isthmus. 

5. The region of Guyana or Parima, of 
shady hills perfectly insulated (once a large 
island) by the plains of the Maranon and 
Oronoc . 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

6. The vast equinoctical pi ains of Oronoc 
and Maranon, surrounding the mountains 
of Parima: where deserts, swamps and 
forests are mixed. 

These 15 regions are quite natural, dis 
tinguished by peculiar physical, and geolo 
gical features ; but they do not coincide 
with the ethnological regions, where the 
American tribes have spread and inter 
mixed. It would be difficult to state here 
even the most striking of these last. It 
will be the aim of this work to seek for 
them, and ascertain their limits; which 
have often varied anciently : while in mo 
dern times the European colonies and 
states have invaded them in all directions. 

Meantime the population of both Ame 
ricas, must be distinguished in ancient and 
modern. 

In proceeding from the known to the 
unknown : we ascertain that a multitude of 
nations have come to America since 1492, 
as colonists or visitors. The principal were 

1. Spanish : who have colonized or con 
quered from New Mexico to Chili, and from 
Florida to Buenos Ayres. But they came 
not alone, and have brought along with 
them as auxiliaries. 1. Italians, 2. Flemish, 
3. Biscayans, 4. Canarians, &,c., while as 
slaves 5. Moors of Mauritania, and G. Many 
African-negro nations. 

2: Portuguese : who have colonized the 
whole of Brazil, and brought there besides 
many Negro nations, some Moors, Gypsies, 
Chinese, &c. 



INTRODUCTION. 

3. English: Who have colonized the 
whole eastern side of North America, Ja 
maica and other islands of Antilles, with 
parts of Yucatan, Honduras, Guyana, &c. 
But they have brought with them, the 
Welsh, Scotch, Irish, Germans, Jews and 
many African nations. 

4. French: They colonized Canada, 
Lousiana, Hayti, several Carib islands, 
Cayenne in Guyana, &,c., and although 
conquered in North America and Hayti, 
their language remains. They brought 
along the Provencals, Bretons, Basks, 
speaking distinct languages, with several 
African nations. 

5. Scandinavians : Who partly settled 
in North America since the 10th century, 
did laterly colonize again Greenland, with 
Delaware and some Carib Islands. They 
include the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes. 

6. Dutch-Hollanders : Sent colonies to 
New- York, Surinam, Curazao, &c. brought 
Gypsies, Germans and Africans. 

7. Russians: Have invaded and partly 
settled the north west shores and islands 
of North America ; bringing there Cozacs, 
Calmucs, and several other Tartarian sub 
jects. 

8. Besides these, several other nations 
have laterly visited America, or settled 
therein, blending w r ith the above. All the 
nations of Europe, even Hungarians, Po- 
landers, Greeks and Turks, have been 
brought there. Pirates of all nations, even 



INTRODUCTION, 23 

Algerines, have wandered to America. 
Almost all the nations of Africa have heen 
led there in slavery. Asia has sent Jews, 
Hindus, Gypsies or Zinganis, Chinese and 
Tartars : while Oceania has sent Malays, 
Madagascar s, Hawayans, &c. 

This well known fact of the various and 
anomalous modern population of both Ame 
ricas within 3 or 4 centuries, will greatly 
help us to form a more correct estimate of 
the ancient population and colonization of 
such vast countries during many thousand 
years previous to 1492. 

It is not yet suitable to give here a com 
plete list of all the ancient nations, who 
have, or may have colonized the Western 
hemisphere : this can only be done after 
wards as a result of the instituted enquiries 
on the subject. Meantime I state as highly 
probable, even by mere analogy, that all 
the nearest nations of the Atlantic or Pacific 
Oceans, in the Eastern hemisphere, have 
either visited or colonized the Americas ; 
particularly from the east, the bold naviga 
tors, Atlarites, Pelagians, Phenicians, Ly- 
byans, Etruscans, &c., and from the west 
the ancient tribes of Tartars arid Chinese, 
the Polynesians, &c. We shall throughout 
these historical outlines find ample proofs 
of this fact, exploding the erroneous belief 
that a single nation could have populated 
the whole of the Western Hemisphere. It 
shall appear also that these early settlers 
must have brought along many foreign 
tribes, as auxiliaries, vassals or slaves. 



24 INTRODUCTION. 

In my Atlantic Journal of 1832 will be 
found a kind of classification of the ancient 
nations of both Americas, divided into 25 
groups, 14 in North, 11 in South America. 
But this first attempt, cannot be perfect : 
it requires a close study of all the American 
languages, before we can ascertain cor 
rectly all their mutual affinities, and reduce 
each to the real parent group. Meantime 
this attempt, and the further correction of 
it in this work, will become very useful his 
torical bases. I give therefore the list of 
the 25 groups, with a well known nation 
and language as the type, to which others 
may be gradually reduced. 

In North America 1. Uski or Innuit, 
type the Esquimaux. 

2. Ongwi, type the Hurons and Iroquois. 

3. Linni, type the Linapi or Dela- 
wares. 

4. Wacash, type the Chopunish, and 
Nutkas. 

5. Skerreh, type the Panis. 

6. Nachez, type the Cados and Cheti- 
machas. 

7. Capaha, types the Washas or Ozages, 
and Dacotas or Sioux. 

8. Chactah, types the Chactahs and 
Chicasas. 

9. Otali, Tzulukis or Cherokis. 

10. Atalan, type the Tarascas. 

11. Otomi, type the Otomis. 

12. Anahuac, type the Aztecas. 

13. Maya, types the Mayas and Huaz- 
tecas. 



INTRODUCTION. 25 

14. Cliontal, type the Tzendals and 
Chols. 

In South America 15. Aruac, types the 
Haytians, Aruacs, Taos, &LC. 

16. Calina, types the Caribs and Tama- 
nacs. 

17. Puris, type the Maypuris. 

18. Yarura, types the Guaraos and Be- 
toys. 

19. Cuna, type the Dariens. 

20. Mayna, type the Panos. 

21. Maca, type the Muyzcas. 

22. Guarani, type the Tupis and Oma- 
guas. 

23. Mara,) type the Quichuas and Ay- 
maras. 

24. Lule, types the Vilelas and Mbayas. 

25. Chili, type the Chilians. 
Notwithstanding the condensed form of 

these outlines, the ample materials to be 
brought together, will extend them perhaps 
beyond the desirable limits. In order to 
lessen this difficulty and yet omit nothing 
that is new or important, the work will be 
divided into three series. 

1st. The annals of South America, where 
many generalities will be introduced, that 
need not be repeated in the 2d series, on 
the annals of North America. 

3d. Illustrations of these outlines, where 
will be thrown and collected all the colla 
teral proofs, documents, vocabularies of 
languages, manuscript facts and events, 
3 



26 INTRODUCTION. 

essential quotations, and results of all the 
investigations. 

The Peruvian and Austral regions of 
South America will first be introduced, 
because of paramount importance. By 
the Peruvian region is meant the whole 
western part of South America from the 
equator to the southern tropic, and by Aus 
tral America, the whole of it from that 
tropic to the Magellanic Islands. The 
gulf of Rio Plata and the river Paraguay, 
appear to divide these regions from Brazil, 
both physically and historically. Austral 
America includes the countries and nations 
of Chili, Tucuman, Chaco, Buenos Ayres, 
Patagonia and Magellania ; but it shall 
often be needful to mention their neighbors, 
with whom they are more or less related, 
and even distant nations that are not al 
ways strangers to them. 

The ancient nations of Austral America 
are the least known on many accounts, and 
those on whom most fables and systems 
have been based. It is there that dwell 
the Patagons, who have been believed a 
peculiar species of giants ; and those tribes 
of Chaco, &,c., which Azara has deemed 
peculiar men, with languages without affi 
nities with any other: which will easily be 
proved to be quite false. 

If America has had an aboriginal popu 
lation, or Autoctons, men born from the 
soil : it is there they should be found, dri 
ven to the south and those remote climes 



INTRODFCTIOX. 27 

by the ancient colonies of other nations; 
and they should offer features, complexions, 
languages and manners totally different 
from any other. If all the Americans de- ) 
rive from ancient colonies, it is still there 
that ought to be found the primitive tribes, 
driven on by the subsequent colonies and 
tribes. Therefore these Austral tribes are 
exceedingly interesting to study as the most 
ancient relics of American population. 

But the origin of the American nations 
and tribes are only to be considered as a 
branch of their history. The accounts of 
their dispersion and successive settlements, 
the history of the events which they have 
remembered and transmitted to us by tra 
ditions or annals, those of the empires which 
have been founded there in ancient and 
modern times, the study of their civilization 
and ethnography .... offer surely much 
more interest, and a wide field of historical 
facts or enquiries. 

It appears that as soon as we speak of 
the ancient Americans, we ought to cut 
the gordian knot, and say whence they 
came. I do not wish to explain before 
hand, all my views on this subject. I wish 
to reserve them for the results of the en 
quiries to be pursued in this work. Yet to 
satisfy the general curiosity expressed on 
the subject, I may venture to say that I 
have not yet found in either Americas, any 
people or tribe totally different from any 



28 INTRODUCTION. 

other, or without philological affinities : nor 
with features, complexions, and other physi 
cal characters quite peculiar. But instead, 
all the ancient American tribes have nume 
rous affinities between each other, and 
with races of mankind in the Eastern 
hemisphere : both physical and moral, as 
well as philological. 

If the American nations sprung from 
ancient colonies ; it is among the primitive 
population of the earth, that their parents 
must be sought and found : since America 
appears to have been partly peopled even 
before the flood. Therefore the systems 
which would derive them all from the Phe- 
nicians, Jews, Chinese, Tartars of later 
ages, or any single people whatever, must 
be absurd and improbable : since traces of 
many ancient nations are found in this 
western hemisphere. 

It has always appeared probable to me 
that most of the ancient colonies to Ame 
rica, must have come there by the nearest 
and most direct way ; the same nearly fol 
lowed again by Columbus in 1492 : either 
ffom north Africa or south Europe. This 
becomes still more probable if there were 
formerly a land or large islands in the At 
lantic Ocean ; of which we have ample 
proofs. Nearly all the nations from Flo 
rida and Mexico to Chili, appear to have 
reached America from the east, through 
the tropical islands or Antilles; but the 



INTRODUCTION. 29 

ancestors of these emigrating tribes, dwelt 
once in Asia, which appears the cradle of 
mankind. 

However, many nations of Brazil and Guy 
ana are more recent and of African origin ; 
while nearly all those of North America 
appear to have reached America by the 
opposite direction of Eastern Asia, through 
Alaska or the Streight of Behring, once an 
Isthmus. Therefore the Colonial tribes 
came here from the East, and the North 
West. It is more doubtful that any came 
from the West or Polynesia. 

What is now needful, is to trace these 
colonies, their travels, epochas, and ascer 
tain the nations which they have produced 
in both Americas. This I will endeavour 
to do, without being prevented by the diffi 
culties of the task. I shall always seek to 
ascertain the true names of each nation 
or tribe : which have often been disguised 
under a crowd of nicknames and erroneous 
orthographies. These names when thus 
restored will often furnish an original key, 
to supply the scarcely known languages, or 
lost traditions. 

The Brigands who brought desolation 
over both Americas during two centuries, 
arid the careless travellers who visited them 
in search of wealth, took little notice of the 
languages and traditions of their victims 
or foes. Thus we have to regret the loss 
of many valuable materials, merely indi 
cated. However, a few enlightened visitors, 
3* 



30 INTRODUCTION. 

and the missionaries have preserved some 
of them. The first attempt of the kind was 
the outlines of historical songs and tradi 
tions of Hayti, collected as early as 1498 
by friar Roman, at the request of Colum 
bus ; printed by his son, and by Barcias. 
Yet this valuable document has escaped 
the notice of nearly all the writers on Ame 
rica ! evident proof of utter carelessness or 
neglect. 

Piedrahita has given some of the histo 
rical traditions of the Muyzcas; Juarros 
the annals of the Toltecas of Guatimaia; 
Ayeta and Herrera those of the Mayas of 
Yucatan. Yet they have been neglected 
by our historians. They have merely dwelt, 
and even sparingly, on the annals of Mexico 
and Peru. We have besides fragments on 
the early history of the Ongwis, Linapis, 
Apalachis, Caribs, Dariens, and a few more ; 
but \ve have to regret the loss of the w r ritten 
annals of many civilized nations, the Ta- 
rascas, Huaztecas, Zapotecas, Nicaraguas, 
Chontals, Chilians, Panos, &c. Some of 
which may perhaps be yet partly recovered, 
as those of the Ongwis and Linapis have 
lately been. 

It is only since last age that the study of 
comparative philology has begun to be 
appreciated : and quite recently that lan 
guages have been made subservient to his 
torical researches. Pigafetta had, however, 
set the examples as early as 1520 to collect 
American vocabularies, of which he gave 



INTRODUCTION. 31 

two, the Brazilian and g^agon: which 
are quite Important, since by" them we 
trace both tribes seen by him to the ARUAC 
race. For lack of frequent ancient vocabu 
laries, we must often grope in the dark ; 
but I do not despair to be able to restore 
many lost languages, by fragments escaped 
from the common ruin. I have already 
succeeded with the Taino of Hayti, the 
Cahiri of Trinidad, Taiega and Apalaclti 
of North America, the Chontal of central 
America, the Cotta of Peru, and the Seke 
of old Chili ; whereby I shall draw some 
happy conclusions. 

Asia has been the country of fables, Af 
rica of monsters, and America of systems, 
for those who prefer opinions to reality. 
The systems and hypotheses of philosophy 
or ignorance upon America, exceed all the 
Asiatic fables. A crowd of prejudices, 
false opinions and fantastic theories, ..have 
been asserted on this hemisphere, often 
mistaking a small part of it for the whole. 
Some have declared all the Americans a 
red, beardless, naked and barbarous race, 
or a peculiar species of men. Others that 
they came out of the ground or from the 
clouds, or over a bridge, instead of boats 
or on the ice. Others that they are all 
Jews, or Malays, or Tartars. Lastly, even 
that Eden was here and Noah built the ark 
in America ! All these systems and fifty 
more brought forth by ignorance or pride, 
are based upon the most absurd proofs, or 



3*2 INTRODUCTION. 

a few insulated facts : while there are his 
torical facts easy to prove that are neglected 
or forgotten. 

Thus it is a positive fact that many 
ancient nations of the east, such as the 
Lybians, Moors, Etruscans, Phenicians, 
Hindus, &c. had heard of America, or 
knew nearly as much of it, as we did of 
Australia and Polynesia 100 years ago. 
It is as certain that America contained 
anciently, as even now, a crowd of distinct 
nations and tribes ; some of which were 
quite civilized, perhaps as much as the 
Spaniards led by Columbus; the others 
more barbarous, but not entirely savage. 
There were but few, if any, real savages in 
America, dwelling in woods without social 
ties ; most of them were wandering tribes 
of fishermen or hunters. 

There were formerly in America as now, 
tribes of all complexions, as elsewhere : 
yellowish, olive, coppery, tawny, redened, 
brown, incarnate or white, and even black 
ened or negro-like. Tall and dwarfish men 
from 8 to 4 feet in size, called giants and 
pygmies men with various frames, skulls, 
aiid features, of all the sorts found in the 
eastern hemisphere. 

The Americans had long before Colum 
bus, large cities ; built of stones, bricks or 
wood, with walls, ditches, temples, palaces. 
Some of which were of immense size and 
population. One of them Otolum near 
Palenque was 28 miles long, equal ,to 



INTRODUCTION. 33 

Thebes, Babylon and Kinoj in size and 
monuments. Nearly all the ancient sci 
ences and useful primitive arts were known 
in America, as well as commerce and navi 
gation, symbolic and alphabetic writing, 
nearly all the Asiatic religions, &c. The 
most civilized nations had even colleges 
and universities, canals and paved roads, 
splendid temples and monuments, &c. 

It would be tedious to designate all what 
has not been told, or been very unworthily 
noticed, upon America. The whole of 
these outlines shall be comments upon the 
forgotten facts relating to this third of the 
world. Such as are found recorded by 
chance in one or few authors, scattered in 
1000 volumes, unsought and unnoticed by 
nearly all the othef -writers. 

Respecting the chronology of the Ame 
rican annals, it is rather obscure and doubt 
ful ; but perhaps not more so than that of 
all ancient nations except the Chinese. It 
frequently ascends as far as the floods and 
even the creation. The most ancient dates 
are found among the Tols or Toltecas and 
Atlantes, Mexicans or Aztecas, the Muyz- 
cas, Origwis, Linapis, &c. But it is difficult 
to make those dates agree among them 
selves, or with our oriental dates. However 
the American annals may be divided into 
great periods, which can be admitted as 
certain, and resting points of history at 
peculiar epochas. 



34 INTRODUCTION. 

Here is their tabular view. 
I. Ancient history, ending with Colum~ 
bus in 1492. 

1. Antidiluman period, beginning at 
the creation, about 6690 years before Co 
lumbus according to the Tols, and ending 
with the last cataclysm of Peleg, about 
3788 years before Columbus. 

2. Doubtful period, from that epocha 
till the reform of Tol astronomy, 1612 years 
before Columbus. This includes several 
subordinate periods and epochas. 

About 3100 years before Columbus, set^ 
tlement of the Linapis in Shinaki or Firland 
or Oregon in N. W. America. 

About 2500 years before Columbus, wars 
of the Towancas and Ongwis, the hero 
Yatatan, &c. in North America. 

3. Certain period, from 1612 till Co 
lumbus arrival in 1492. Many lesser pe 
riods and epochas. 

442, after Christ End of the Tollan 
kingdom. 

492, Beginning of Atotarho dinasty of 
Ongwis. 

558, Empire of Tol-tecas begins in 
Anahuac, and lasts till 942. 

840, Beginning of the wars of Zipanas 
and Caris in South Peru. 

947, Foundation of the kingdom of 
Mayapan by Cuculcan in Yucatan. 

985, Discovery of America by the 
Norwegians. 



MATERIALS. 35 

1000, Conquest of Quito by the Skirls. 

1105, Beginning of the Incas empire. 

1322, Foundation of Tenuchtitlan or 
Mexico. 

II. Modern history, from 1492 till our 
days. 

1. Colonial Period, from 1492 till 1776. 

2. Independent Period, beginning in 
1776. The foundation of the empire of 
Brazil in 1822 may begin a subordinate 
period. 

Each age may bear the name of a wise 
legislator or eminent personage : the ages 
of modern history are those of 1. Columbus, 
2. Las-Casas, 3. William Penn, 4. Wash 
ington, 5. Bolivar. 



CHAPTER II. 

MATERIALS FOR THE HISTORY OF THE AMERI 
CANS. Authors, Documents, Sciences. 
Languages, Civilization, <$*c. 

FAR from following the example of many 
American historians, who often take a sin 
gle guide for their crude compilations, or 
avoid the trouble to consult all the historical 
sources, I have taken care in my researches 
to employ all the possible means to reach 
the truth, and collect all the facts that are 
scattered among a crowd of writers. I 
have carefully analysed, compared and 
judged the materials, details and events 



36 MATERIALS. 

thus procured : nay, all the auxiliary sci 
ences have afforded additional fragments 
or proofs. 

These materials may be divided into 10 
series or kinds 

1. Works, printed or manuscript. 

2. Documents and monuments. 

3. Maps, plans, views, &/C. 1 

4. Natural sciences. 

5. Ethnography. 

G. Traditions and annals. 

7. Chronology and astronomy. 

8. Languages and philology. 

9. Religion, mythologies, &c. 

10. Civilization, laws and manners.. 

The writers upon America are very nu 
merous ; but mostly defective or local. A 
number, however, have attempted to con 
sider the whole continent : the principal 
among those containing facts upon all parts 
of America are chiefly 

Herrera, History and Geography of Spa 
nish America carried till the year 1554. 

Delaet, Historical Geography of Ame 
rica, till 1630. 

Garcias, Origins of the Americans. 
Spanish work. 

Carli, American Letters. Italian work. 

Ogilby, History and Geography of Ame 
rica, till 1670. 

Raynal, European Settlements in Ame 
rica, till 1774. 

Alcedo, Geographical Dictionary of Spa 
nish America in 1786. Spanish work. 



MATERIALS. 37 

Maltebrun, Improved Geography, 1820. 

Touron, History of America, chiefly 
ecclesiastical, and incomplete, 14 volumes 
1768-70, in French. 

Robertson, false History of America or 
Spanish Conquests of Mexico or Peru. 

The collections of travels by Hackluyt, 
Purchas, Harris, Ramusio, Barcias, Pre- 

rost, &c. 
The American researches of Ulloa, 
Humboldt, M Culloh, &c. 

I have consulted and analyzed all these 
general works, and many others of less 
account ; but I have not yet read Hervas 
nor Compagnone, knowing them merely 
through quotations 

The first Bibliotheca Americana or 
catalogue of writers on America, was given 
by Kennet in 1701 and 1713. Another 
appeared in England in 1719 ; a third in 
France in 18*20. They contain the names, 
authors, editions, dates, &c. of over 300 
works relating to America. Robertson 
has given a list of nearly as many, which 
he pretends to have consulted, although he 
neglected what they tell us. Humboldt 
has also a catalogue of 250 authors, 
consulted by him. In 1831, Aspinwall 
published his American Library contain 
ing 771 works ; and Warden, in Paris, his 
own, containing 977 American works with 
133 atlasses and maps. 

All this does not complete the account 
of books on America ; since I have seen 
4 



38 MATERIALS. 

many omitted in all these catalogues ; al 
though I never could meet some mentioned 
there. I will carefully notice them, that it 
maybe known where I found my materials, 
and what may yet have escaped my re 
searches. I have already consulted upwards 
of 600 writers on both Americas, and there 
are at least 1000 already printed, I mean 
special or local works connected with his 
tory. If we were to add to these the bo 
tanists, naturalists, paltry compilers, and 
pamphlets, we might make a catalogue of 
3000 works on America, her inhabitants 
and productions. 

I will refer gradually to them, and have 
collected them all in my manuscript illustra 
tions ; materials, printed works. There 
fore we do not lack printed materials : but 
the choice of the best is difficult : since 
many works merely consist in fables, blun 
ders, errors, hypotheses and their constant 
repetitions : which ought to be rejected in 
order to gather facts and the truth. But 
we must not reject as pyrrhoniams all that 
may clash with our ideas and systems : it 
is chiefly needful so recall and restore the 
events and facts mentioned by the earliest 
travellers and observers. 

These numerous local writers ought to 
be divided into three classes. 1. historians 
and annalists, 2. travellers and geographers, 
3. antiquarians and philologists. I shall 
now merely mention the most useful (which 
I have all consulted) upon the Peruvian 
and Austral regions of South America. 



MATERIALS. 39 

1st. The principal historians are, 1. 
Molina, History of Chili, 2. Funes, Civil 
History of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and 
Tucuman, 3. Lavega, History of Peru, 4. 
Debrizoffer, history of Abipones, 5. Char- 
levoix of Paraguay, 6. Techo, on Ditto, 
7, 8. Lozano and Jolis on Chaco, 9. Mura- 
tori, and 10. Renger, Paraguay. 

2d. The principal writers who have 
furnished historical facts, with geographical 
and ethnographical materials, are old tra 
vellers, 1. Pigafetta and Magellan, 2. Ca 
bot, 3. Shmidel, 4. Drake, 5. Cavendish, 6. 
Acarete, 7. Knivet, 8. Frezier, 9 Sepp, 10. 
Brewer, 11. Nyel, 12. Schmidtrneyer. 

The modern travellers are, 1. Azara, 2 
D Ulloa, 3. Humboldt, 4. Cook, 5. Byron, 6. 
Laperouse, 7. Stevenson, 8. Myers, 9. Heyn, 
10. Beaumont, 11. Gillespie, 12. Vidal, 13. 
Wedel, 14. King, 15. Morrell, 16. Andrew, 
17. Temple, 18. Mawe, 19. Proctor, 20. 
Graham, 21. Head, 22. Pernetty. 

The principal original geographers and 
ethnographers are, 1. Fernandez on Chi- 
quitos 1726, 2. Bueno, Ditto 1800, 3. Falk- 
ner, on Patagonia 1774, 4. Molina on Chili 
and Cuyo, 5. Lozano on Chaco 1733, 6. 
Skinner, Memoirs on Peru, 7. Gili, South 
America 1782. 

3d. Lastly the auxiliary writers on philo 
logy, antiquities and other historical branch 
es are, 1. Adelung, Vater, Maltebrun, Balbi, 
&c., on all American languages, 2. Ameri 
can researches of Humboldt, Macculoh 



40 MATERIALS. 

1829. Those of Depaw and Ranking are 
shameful, perverting every thing to support 
false systems. 

Manuscripts. There are yet many such 
extant on America, in the libraries of both 
hemispheres. Clavigero gave a long list 
of Mexican Manuscripts. Funes quotes 
several on Austral America. There are 
several extant in Central America and 
South America, in Peru and Brazil. Many 
have been lost through wilful neglect, or 
destroyed at the Spanish Conquest, the 
expulsion of Jesuits, &c. Those in the an- 
-cient languages, Mexican, Tarasca, Tzen- 
dal, &c., are now very rare, and much 
esteemed. Those burnt by Zumaraga, the 
Mexican Omar, have been often regretted. 
Lord Kingborough has lately published 
some at a great cost. 

The manuscripts which I could consult 
on South America are but few. Those on 
North America are more numerous and 
very important ; particularly the traditions 
of the Linapis, Shawanis, &c., they are 
chiefly on wood, bark, skins or Mosaic 
strings. But I have received several man 
uscript vocabularies of the languages of 
Guyana, Brazil, Texas, Mexico, &c. and I 
have consulted several manuscripts in the 
libraries of Philadelphia. 

There are, besides, in the public or pri 
vate libraries of all the great cities of both 
Americas, several interesting historical 
works, which have never been published. 



MATERIALS. 41 

There are several in Philadelphia, particu 
larly the historical collections of Simetierre. 
Often the best or most important works 
cannot be printed : while a crowd of paltry 
compilations are ushered to deceive the 
public. This may be deemed a remainder 
of the prevailing ignorance and error. In 
stead of appreciating the learned and useful 
works, the prevailing taste is for historical 
romances and systematic fables. It is 
needful to seek these previous labors, which 
run the rish of being totally lost, if we will 
not have again to blush hereafter for these 
historical losses. 

I give the list of such among my own 
manuscripts, as have been employed to 
write this history. They are yet in my 
possession, but I wish to see them deposited 
in a great public library ; where they might 
be consulted. 

1. Materials for the history, ethnogra 
phy, &c. of the Americans, their annals, 
chronology, &/c. 40 books, begun in 1820, 
continued ever since, and not yet closed. 

2. Vocabularies of the ancient and mo 
dern languages of both Americas, symbols, 
glyphs, &c, 4 books, begun 1824. 

3. Comparitive geography and ethnogra 
phy of ancient and modern America, 5 
books, with maps, &c, begun 1824. 

4 Ancient monuments of North and 
South America, compared with the primi 
tive monuments of the eastern hemisphere, 
3 books and 200 plans, &c., 1822. 
4* 



42 MATERIALS. 

5. TELLUS, or the primitive History of 
the Earth and Mankind in Protliolia, Oce 
ania and Neotholia, with the ancient and 
modern general ethnography, 30 books, 
begun in 1821. 

6. Synglosson, or compared examination 
of all languages and nations, 6 books, begun 
1825. 

7. Iconographical Illustrations of all my 
historical works and travels, containing 
over 1000 maps, plans, views, costumes, 
portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, 
&/c., in 10 cartoons, begun 1810. 

8. Travels in North America, in 1802 y 
8, 4, and from 1815 to 1835. In many 
manuscript books and journals. 

I have often been apprehensive of the 
fate of Boturini, for these interesting manu 
script and long researches. This has hap 
pened already for one of my manuscripts* 
As early as 1825 I sent to the Academy 
of Science in Boston, a manuscript of 240 
pages, being an account of the materials 
yet existing for the history of the nations 
and tribes of America before Columbus. 
This was for an offered prize of $100: which 
was never awarded, although my memoir 
was declared the best sent. And instead 
of depositing this manuscript in the library 
of the American Antiquarian Society as 
requested, it has been lost or stolen. If 
never recovered, and that the public may 
judge of the merits of it, at such an early 
period of my historical studies : I will state 



MATERIALS. 43 

the principal results of my enquiries there 
in ; which tenor, together with their length, 
were the ostensible reasons for not award 
ing a prize probably never meant to be 
awarded. 

I therein proved in 18^ 5, 1st. that there 
are yet materials enough, notwithstanding 
the loss of many, for an ancient history of 
America. 

2. That a complete American history 
ought to employ and combine all the ma 
terials afforded by geology, geography, 
physics, chronology, physiology, ethnology, 
archeology, philology, on America, with all 
the traditions of the Americans. 

3. Geology and physical geography indi 
cates the cradles and ancient settlements 
of mankind, the revolutions of nature, the 
places unfit for population, the means of 
access, probable route of colonies, &c. * 

4. America has an ancient geography pre 
vious to 149 2, which ought to be restored. 

5. The coincidence of names of nations 
and tribes, afford a comparitive concord 
ance, indicating ancient connections or 
identitv. 

6. The ancient American population, 
must have been derived from the nearest 
shores of Africa, Europe and Asia. The 
points where all the indications and tradi 
tions tend, are the Antilles, next Paria and 
Guyana in South America ; Anian or Tol- 
lan and Alaska in the N. W with Sucanun- 
ga or Greenland to the N. E. 



44 MATERIALS. 

7. The philological solution of historical 
affinities, must be sought in the roots of 
the languages, their conformity or analo 
gies, the number of similar sounds, roots 
and words; which are susceptible of a 
mathematical calculation, and referable to 
the theory of probabilities. 

8. Many primitive nations in all parts of 
the earth, may thus be proved to have been 
akin or related. 

9. Noah s flood was nearly general ; but 
perhaps not universal. His ark or THBE 
was perhaps Thibet : and his 3 sons 3 na 
tions saved there. 

10. It has been proved that all the anti- 
diluvian patriarchs were Nations, their long 
ages being the duration of dynasties or 
states. This opinion may also be enter 
tained of many other ancient patriarchs or 
heads of tribes, every where, by the usual 
figure of personification. 

11. Peleg s flood was volcanic, not so 
general as Noah s. There may have been 
many successive cataclysms blended in this, 
as this has been often mistaken in date for 
Noah s 

12. The cradle of the Tulans or Mexican 
nations, must have been the Tulan of Asia, 
since Turan and Tartary. There are many 
places called Tula, all over the earth, indi 
cating settlements of Atlantes. 

13. The ancient chronology of America 
may be restored. Several dates given, a 
system proposed. 



MATERIALS. 45 

14. All the races and complexions of 
mankind are found in America. 

15. America was known to the ancient 
nations, particularly the Atlantes, Pela 
gians, Phenicians, &c. 

16. Some highlands of America were 
not covered at Noah s flood, and might be 
come the azylums of men, animals, and 
vegetation, However, but few nations can 
be traced to these azylums in America. 

17. The ancient monuments of both 
Americas, are similar to the primitive 
monuments of Asia, Africa and Europe. 

18. The ancient inscriptions of America 
can be explained. A key may be found 
for all: some are evidently pelagic. 

19. The religions of the Americans, were 
similar to the primitive religions of the 
eastern hemisphere. 

20. The manners and customs, of the 
Americans, are very various, and form no 
peculiar test. 

21. Many American nations were highly 
civilized, besides the Mexicans and Peru 
vians: skilful in agriculture, and the arts, 
having cattle, colleges, &c. 

My reward for having ascertained and 
proved those facts, was to be denied the 
prize, and to have my manuscript mislaid 
or lost or stolen ! My historical researches 
ever since have continued to confirm nearly 
all these facts. (Note 1.) 

2. Documents and monuments. The 
historical titles and proofs, inscriptions, 



46 MATERIALS. 

medals, coins, charters, &c., which are so 
common elsewhere, are but few as yet, in 
America, belonging to early times : most 
belong to modern history. 

There are some ancient inscriptions scat 
tered in South America ; but not yet pub 
lished. Molina speaks of one on a pyramid 
of Cuyo, which late travellers have not 
found. Those of Otolum near Palenque 
in Central America begin to excite great 
attention; and I have sought a key for 
them. (2) 

Ancient metalic coins and medals, really 
Americans, are exceedingly scarce: yet 
there are some in Central America. Seve 
ral medals, perhaps foreign and indicating 
a communication, have been found, but 
again lost or neglected ; few have been 
figured or explained. 

Implements, tools, sculptures, objects of 
arts, pottery, weapons, JLC. of the ancient 
Americans are found in all the museums ; 
but excite little attention, by not being 
concentrated, accumulated nor classified. 
Many fine specimens of arts have been 
melted, or broken and lost. The astronomi 
cal stones of the Mexicans and Muyzcas 
have been preserved ; but those of Peru 
and Central America are lost ; as well as 
that beautiful one of the Talegas of North 
America, a dodecagone, with 144 hiero 
glyphic signs, found in the Ohio, and once 
kept in a museum of Philadelphia. 

The ancient monuments of both Ame- 



MATERIALS. 47 

ricas, are very numerous, indicating a dense 
population in places since become wild and 
desolate, as in North America, Guyana, 
Brazil, &c. They are most numerous in 
the central parts of both Americas, and 
lessen towards both ends. Yet they are 
met from lat. 45 N. to 45 S. They are 
very variable in different parts; by no 
means identic, indicating different builders 
or many degrees of civilization, from the 
rudest arts to the most refined : employing 
many materials, earth, clay, gravel, stone, 
wood, unbaked bricks ; being either irre 
gular cyclopian structures, or regular build 
ings of rough or cut stones, pizc or beaten 
clay, &c. 

. We do not know as yet one half of those 
in existence, and many have never been 
described nor figured. Yet they afford 
every where, one of the most evident and 
certain base of historical researches, con 
firming traditions, or revealing the seats of 
former empires, their civilization, &c. 
They consist chiefly in mounds, altars, 
tumuli or tombs, ruined cities, villages and 
forts, temples and dwellings ; but we find 
besides in various places, traces of ancient 
palaces, bridges, roads, causeways, canals, 
mines, dromes, baths, pyramids, towers, 
pillars, rocking stones, walls, wells, pits &c. 
They generally resemble the primitive 
monuments of the same kind, met with in 
the eastern hemisphere, from England and 
Ireland to Mauritania and Africa, extend- 



48 MATERIALS. 

ing east to Lybia, Syria, Russia, Persia, 
Tartary, &,c. They have less resemblance 
with the monuments of Egypt, Greece, 
Rome, India and China ; yet some kinds 
somewhat assimilate. In fact, there are, 
throughout both Americas, three very dis 
tinct classes of monuments, indicating dis 
tinct arts and architecture. 

The first or rudest, assimilate nearly to 
those yet used by the rudest tribes in the 
north or in Brazil, Antilles, &c., indicating 
a similar barbarous state. 

The second or primitive, is known by 
using wood and earth instead of stones for 
buildiugs. 

The third or most refined, employed 
stones, often well cut as in Mexico, Central 
America, Peru, &c., and indicates arts 
nearly equal to those of Egypt and India. 

Besides such great monumental remains; 
there are lesser antiquities ; fragments of 
sculpture, statues, idols, painting, Mosaic, 
&c., either in metals, stones, pottery, beads, 
&c., found every where mixed with the 
others. 

But the most singular and dubious relics 
of antiquity, are subteraneous or in excava 
tions : these are in caves, mines, pits, &c.: 
while under ground are found trees, stumps, 
charcoal, ashes, shells, pavements, walls, 
houses, &c. that must have been buried by 
alluvions, diluvions or new formed soil. It 
has been surmised or ascertained that some 
may be antidiluvian : although those in 



MATERIALS. 40 

deep alluvial soils, near streams, and con 
nected with graves, may have been buried 
by men, or fluvial inundations. Mummies, 
skeletons and bones, with human apparel 
and implements have been found in caves, 
evidently buried there by human means, 
and not by floods. Human remains are but 
seldom if ever connected with the organic 
remains of the soil and caves, even of the 
latest geological date. 

3. Geography, Maps, fyc. The knowl 
edge of the regions and localities inhabited 
by mankind, or where colonies are sent, 
empires founded, is needful to history, in 
order to understand and treat the events 
and migrations. The physical configura 
tion of the land, the climates, plains, moun 
tains and streams, have a great influence 
on civilization and communications. Physi 
cal geography is constant and invariable: 
while civil or ethnographical geography is 
constantly fluctuating in limits and names. 

If we had complete series of maps by 
chronological order upon America; we 
should find therein the materials for a com 
parative historical geography, and succes 
sive ethnography, showing the gradual revo 
lutions of mankind. The old maps of 
America, those of Laet, the old geogra 
phers &c. are very valuable for this object. 
Many travellers in America, have given 
original maps, which furnish similar mate 
rials. I have chiefly used for Peru and 
Austral America, the maps of Laet, Aca- 
5 



50 MATERIALS. 

rete, D Anville, Molina, Falkner, Cochranc, 
Wedel. the Jesuits, &c. Among the modern 
general maps, relating to South America, 
the Spanish maps of 1810 and 182*2, the 
English of 1815, the French of 1830, the 
latest American of Tanner, &c. By those 
materials I have heen able to trace and fix 
four periods of American geography, 2 an 
cient and 2 modern. 

I. Primitive geography of America. 

II. Ancient ditto, or between 1400 and 
1500. 

III. Modern colonial geography. 

IV. Modern independent geography. 

I have formed Mpt. maps of the two 
first periods, which shall be published grad 
ually, or in my Illustrations of the Ancient 
Geography of America. We have thou 
sands of maps on the early geography of 
the Eastern Hemisphere, and no one as yet 
on the Western Hemisphere ! to show the 
respective limits and positions of Ancient 
Empires, Nations, Cities, &c., except Clavi- 
gero s map of Anahuac at the Spanish 
conquest, those of Hayti, Laet, &c. 

We have the plans of Ancient Mexico 
and Cuzco; but lack those of Tiahuanaco, 
Otolum, and many more important for an 
cient history. Several plans of ancient 
sites of civilization have been given, along 
with those of monuments. I have many 
in Mpt. yet unpublished. The greatest 
part of modern cities, are built on ancient 
sites, from Mexico to Chili. In North 



MATERIALS. 51 

America, the same happens with Cincinnati, 
Louisville, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Philadel 
phia, Savannah, &c. The views of ruined 
cities, and those of actual cities, are partly 
historical, connected with the knowledge 
of gradual American civilization. 

Many ancient names of islands, lakes, 
streams and mountains, are preserved in 
actual names. Such are Cuba, Hayti 
Ontario, Erie, Titicaca Ohio, Alatamaha, 
Maranon, Parana, Rivers. Alleghanies, 
Andes, Parima, Mountains, &c. When 
the names have been changed, it is the duty 
of the historical geographer to compare 
the old and new names. 

The Mexicans and other civilized ancient 
nations, could draw and paint maps. Even 
our North American tribes can draw rude 
maps on skins or bark. Some of these are 
preserved in museums; but none have ever 
been published : although some are pretty 
correct and deserving it. 

4. Natural Sciences. They are now 
becoming sisters of history. Geology is 
connected with geography. Botany and 
Zoology, acquaint us with trees, plants and 
animals, which were used in the arts and 
agriculture at different periods. The Asi 
atic origine of maize, called maza by He- 
siod and known to the Pelagians (Hughes 
Greece,) has been unperceived by Hum- 
boldt and many others, although it throws 
some light on the early migrations and 



52 MATERIALS. 

communications of tribes. Maize was cul 
tivated in Assyria, West Tartary, North 
Africa and Java, before 1492, as asserted 
by Marco Polo, Crawford, Raffles. Gebe- 
lin, &c. (3) 

America had anciently several cereal 
plants, besides maize, two kinds of indi 
genous wheat and barley in Chili. The 
Quinoa and Zizania, the rice of South and 
North America. Many roots, beans, seeds, 
fruits and flowers, were cultivated from 
Canada to Chili. Native dies were abund 
ant, the indigo and annato were natives. 
Red and yellow cochineal were nursed and 
collected. Many peculiar kinds of cotton, 
silks, hemp, flax, agave, palm, &c, were 
cultivated or collected to use for cloths, 
threads, ropes, &c. 

Paleontology, a new science, seeks for 
the remains of animals dwelling on earth, 
before mankind. America has already 
afforded the huge mastodons, elephants, 
megatherium, megalonyx, as primitive land 
animals, arid many large reptiles, crocodiles 
of streams and lakes. 

American Zoology is very peculiar: a 
few arctic quadrupeds, birds and insects ex- 
cepted ; all the animals of this hemisphere 
are peculiar to it. Reptiles almost entirely 
such, even in the North. All the American 
monkeys form distinct species. The tropi 
cal animals of the two hemispheres are 
distinct, even often in genera. Out of 33 



MATERIALS. 53 

quadrupeds formerly domesticated in Amer 
ica, the dog only may be deemed a stranger: 
and it had even many American varieties. 

The domestic quadrupeds of ancient 
America were 33, while only 25 in Asia, 
Africa and Europe. Among them were 4 
species of Vicunia, 4 of Agutis, 2 deer, 
2 hogs, 10 monkeys, &c. See my disserta 
tion on the domestic animals of both hem 
ispheres, 1832. Americans had also tamed 
32 birds or fowls, as many as Asia, &c., and 
even some reptiles, fishes, insects, &c., had 
become domestic: altogether 112 in Amer 
ica and only 80 in Europe, Asia, &c., before 
1492. 

American botany offers many peculiar 
regions ; in the North only, akin to Asiatic 
or European botany ; but becoming quite 
distinct in the tropics, still more so in Aus 
tral America. Since 1492 the European 
colonists have brought many plants, that 
are become spontaneous from Canada to 
Chili: these must be carefully separated 
from the ancient indigenous plants. 

The A meriean Floras are nearly as many 
as the 15 natural regions already indicated, 
each having a focal seat or cradle in some 
range of mountains. They become richer 
or more abundant in species within the 
tropics, decreasing to the North and South. 
Trees and palm abound there, and disap 
pear near the poles, the palms are unknown 
beyond the 36 dgerees North and South. 
The equator has 500 species of trees , in 
5* 



54 MATEttlAL*. 

latitude 40 N. and S. only 100 kinds are 
found, or even less. Social plants arid 
grasses abound in plains, and in the North 
dwindle to mosses and lichens. 

Trees were early tools of civilization, 
affording timber, fuel, dies, houses, boats, 
weapons, &c. Fruit trees afforded food in 
abundance : even the tribes of North Amer 
ica near latitude 40 d. had 40 kinds of na 
tive wild fruits, and had begun to plant 
orchards of plumbtrees, peachtrees, crab- 
4rees, nut-trees. They knew how to make 
oils of nuts, to dry the fruits, make sugars 
out of maples and other trees. 

Fish has always afforded an ample sup 
ply of food to early nations, whence the 
preference to dwell near streams, Lakes 
and shores. Notwithstanding the swimming 
rambles of fishes, it is only the pelagic or 
oceanic tribes of them that are common to 
both hemispheres. Most of the resident 
shore fishes of America are peculiar species. 
Still more so with lacustral and fiuviatile 
fishes. These are divided into peculiar 
regions. Our northern lakes form one ; ami 
almost every large stream has a peculiar 
generation of finny tribes : such are the 
Mississippi, Maranon, Parana, the Atlantic 
streams and rivers, those of Brazil, &c. 

Minerals abound in both Americas. It 
was gold and silver that drew hither the 
greedy Spanish freebooters. The civilized 
nations knew mining, smelting, casting and 
forging. They used gold* silver, copper, 



MATERIALS. 55 

brass, lead, &c.; collected and prized gems, 
emeralds, agats, volcanic glass, &c. Even 
the less civilized tribes of North America 
used copper and lead, clays for pipes, pot 
tery, &c. Iron was scarce because so hard 
to melt, and highly prized ; but iron-rings 
have been found as jewels around the wrists 
of skeletons. 

Metalic coins were little known except 
in Central America ; but bits of silver, gold, 
tin, iron, were used as such. The other 
mediums of exchange were skins, mats, 
nuts, cacao, shells, beads, mosaic works, 
,c. Commerce was well known to many 
nations; traders went 500 miles to exchange 
commodities in Florida, Mexico, Yucatan, 
Peru, &c. Navigators went by sea for the 
same purpose all over the Antilles, coast 
of Peru, and in the great streams. It is 
thus that were found many strange and 
foreign objects, jewels, medals, metals, &c., 
all over America, and in early tombs. 

5. Ethnography. This new science 
which undertakes to describe nations, 
reckons already many peculiar branches. 
Anthropography or the knowledge of phy 
sical mankind. Philology or the compara 
tive study cf human speech and languages. 
Besides the nameless branch attending to 
the moral ideas, arts, institutions, manners, 
civilization, governments and religions of 
mankind; which might be called moral 
ethnography. 

All these studies become the philosophy 



56 MATERIALS. 






of history, and shall duly command my 
attention. Some writers neglect them 
altogether ; others, like Robertson, do not 
know how to collect and accumulate facts 
instead of systems: Rollin has shown in 
his Ancient History, how useful moral 
ethnography may be as an auxiliary: al 
though he omitted philology and physical 
facts. 

I have studied the men of all the parts 
of the world, in order to know and com 
pare them, better than had been done. 
All the errors on the histories of nations, 
proceed commonly from the slender or 
partial views acquired or admitted by the 
writers. There is much to glean on the 
ethnography of modern nations, and there 
from we may ascend to ancient ethnogra 
phy. It would be needful to study well the 
physical and moral features of all ; the 
shapes of bodies, skulls, faces and limbs ; 
the complexions of the skin, hairs and eyes ; 
with the casual or permanent varieties. 

But, above all, we must better study all 
the spoken languages and dialects. It is 
strange that we hardly know r anything, and 
sometimes nothing at all, on the languages 
of many existing tribes, with whom we have 
intercourse in both Americas. It would 
be desirable to procure at least a vocabu 
lary of 100 essential words, in each. Such 
words, including the cardinal numbers, will 
goon become the key of ethnographical 
philology. While the additional study of 



MATERIALS. 57 

phonology or sounds of languages, their 
idioms and grammars, their roots, and 
verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols 
used to communicate ideas, will combine 
to furnish the complete knowledge of phi 
lology as a separate science. Although 
I have not always carried so far my re 
searches; I did so for a few, applying 
chiefly myself to the essential features of 
languages ; and the unexpected results will 
be surprising. 

American anthropography will teach 
that there were men of all sizes, features 
and complexions, in this hemisphere be 
fore 1492 : notwithstanding the false asser 
tions of many writers, who take one nation 
for the whole American group. The 
Uskihs, the Puruays, the Farias, the Chons, 
&c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 
such tribes were found in South America ; 
while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, 
the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. 
All the other shades of brown, tawny and 
coppery, were scattered every where. 
There was not a single red man in Ame 
rica, unless painted such. Some tribes 
had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chi 
nese, Berbers, &,c., others bushy beards. 
The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet 
high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet. 

6. Traditions and Annals. Many 
American nations preserve a memory of 
historical events by unwritten traditions, 
repeated from fathers to sons ; or commu- 



58 MATERIALS. 

nicated orally by the priests, chiefs or 
elderly men. Many are preserved yet to 
this day, by frequent repetitions, being 
embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, 
drawings, or even symbolic figures and 
signs. Many of those traditions are pre 
cious for history, notwithstanding the fa 
bles, allegories, metaphors, personifications, 
&/c., which partly conceal them or render 
the meaning obscure. We must learn to 
decipher them as we do old inscriptions 
and medals. 

Although many such are now nearly lost 
for us, by the extinction of the living books, 
who kept the remembrance : there are 
many already collected, and of which we 
ought to make a good use. But there are 
as many more, which have never been 
collected nor printed. I have collected 
many such in North America in manu 
script. It often happens that the American 
tribes will not communicate them to their 
foes or oppressors ; but their friends and 
allies may hope to receive the deposit of 
them. Every enlightened traveller ought 
to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet 
after being acquired, they are sometimes 
lost again, by neglect. I have known some 
learned and unlearned men despise them 
equally as Indian Stories, because they 
despise the ancient American race. There 
are, however, as yet many historical songs, 
poems and tales to collect among all the 
American tribes, which falling in good 



MATERIALS. 59 

hands cannot fail to attract notice and be 
employed usefully. Every one who ne- 

flects or destroys them acts as a vandal, 
lalcolm has said at the outset of his his 
tory of Persia, that we ought never to 
neglect the original notions of a people on 
its origin, or early history, since therein is 
found the germ and spring of their subse 
quent conduct, actions and opinions. 

My illustrations shall contain many un 
published or forgotten traditions, whereof 
I shall avail myself in all my historical 
annals and researches. I consider those 
of the Uskihs, Dinriis, Ongwis, Linapis, 
Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Ata- 
kapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly import 
ant for the annals of North America. The 
same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapo- 
tecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &,c., for 
Central America. Of the Haytians, Cu 
bans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in 
South America those of the Muyzcas, 
Cumanans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peru 
vians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c. 

7. Chronology and Astronomy. These 
two sciences always go together, and form 
a double key of history. The American 
chronology is by no means fixed before 
1492, and requires a skillful hand to pre 
serve and compare all the heterogenous 
dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt 
to elucidate it gradually; but may often be 
compelled, as in geology, to relate only 
successive events without dates, and merely 




60 MATERIALS. 

referred to a series of gradual facts. In 
Austral America, we are told that none 
had notions of astronomy and dates, except 
the Chilians ; yet their chronology begins 
only in 1450. I doubt this : I rather be 
lieve that their oral traditions have been 
neglected, as well as those of their neigh 
bours. 

In Peru, there are many positive dates, 
yet I was the first to reduce them to chro 
nological order. In Brazil and Guyana, 
but few dates are found. The Muyzcas 
had very early dates, yet few have been 
preserved ; much obscured by personifica 
tions of dinasties, and Pietrahita begins 
their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years 
before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles 
the dates are quite loose, and difficult to 
reduce even to a serial order. 

But in Central and Mexican America, 
we find many early dates with a regular 
chronology. Yet some are extravagant or 
contradictory. I shall endeavour to eluci 
date them, so as to reduce the whole to 
order. They must form the base of a 
regular American chronology, that ascends 
by dates to the flood and creation. In 
Yucatan the first regular date only reach 
to 940 after Christ. 

In North America, where the smallest 
number of dates existed; we have unex 
pectedly and quite lately, found that many 
ancient dates could be procured. Cusick 
has published those of the Ongwi traditions, 



MATERIALS. 61 

and I have ascertained those of the Lina- 
pis. Both of which reach to the flood and 
creation, and afford series of available 
dates as early as 1600 years before our 
era ; thus nearly as ample as those of the 
TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances. 

Astronomy was cultivated by all the civ 
ilized nations of ancient America. They 
had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 
13 solar years. Humboldt has well w r rit- 
ten on that subject ; but much remain to 
be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon 
by generations as the Greeks, the Polyne 
sians, &c., and by winters instead of years, 
moons instead of solar months. They had 
also a cycle of 60 years. In Central Ame 
rica, &c. the months were of 20 days, 
including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Pe 
ruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks 
of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas 
small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in 
ancient America, was found the sabatical 
week of days, based on the 7 planets and 
the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is re 
markable, as evincing a remote antiquity, 
and separation before this week was adopted 
in Egypt, India. Syria, Celtica, &c. 

Until 120 years before Christ the TOL- 
tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar 
year, as the primitive nations of Asia : then 
they added the hours to the year. This 
forms their astronomical era. The Muyz 
cas had a very complicated astronomy, and 
three kinds of years. The usual was of 20 
6 



62 MATERIALS. 

moons ,and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. 
The horal division unknown in many parts of 
America, was of 4 hours in the day for the 
Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 
and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 

12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. 
The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 
104 degrees. 

Arithmetic is intimately connected with 
astronomy. A complete decimal numera 
tion was known to all the civilized Ameri 
can nations, and even to the northern tribes. 
The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the 
manual mode; there are traces abo of a 
binary numeration, the most simple of all : 
while others had complex calculations by 

13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace 
of any by 7, and but slight indications of a 
ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these 
American modes of reckoning may thus be 
reduced to the binary, by two or pairs ; 
and the quinary or manual by the five fin 
gers, of which the decimal is the double, 
and by 20 the quadruple. 

8. Languages. They are becoming one 
of the most important aids in history. When 
the annals are ample and clear, the exami 
nation of the languages is merely a sup 
plement to historical knowledge ; but when 
they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost ; 
languages then supply more or less to their 
defects or loss. Their comparative study 
furnish us new lights to ascertain the ori- 
gines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alii- 



MATERIALS. 63 

ances, wars, &/c., of the nations thus depriv 
ed of written annals or even traditions. 
They serve also to rectify the imperfect 
annals or the fabulous traditions. This 
study may lead besides to trace the man 
ners, religions, intercourse, arts and scien 
ces of nearly all nations ; since the proper 
languages of each people offers a picture 
of the civilization, acquired or borrowed 
knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each. 

It is above all in both Americas that this 
study is indispensable in historical resear 
ches : I will therefore apply to languages 
in all cases, and make constant use of them ; 
and they will unfold new facts quite un 
known, although very important, Histori 
cal lights shall thereby be thrown on many 
obscure subjects, whence astonishing and 
unexpected results may spring, in which I 
shall depend as much as upon mutilated and 
neglectful traditions. 

By taking into view all the American 
languages or as many as are already known, 
we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd 
systems of philosophers and philologists, 
who taking only a few as samples of the 
whole, have either deemed all the Ameri 
cans, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlan- 
tes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. 
Now the fact is that these writers have never 
taken the trouble to compare the numerous 
American languages and dialects, reduce 
them to groups, and seek their affinities 
elsewhere. 



64 MATERIALS. 

Adelung and Vater had once stated with 
out proof, that nearly 1200 languages ex 
isted in America. Balbi has reduced them 
to 423, of which 212 in Sonth America; 
but they can be much further reduced, most 
of them being mere dialects. The whole 
may be comprised in 25 groups of langua 
ges, or even less; which were certainly 
identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago : 
and all of which have astonishing affinities 
with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, 
so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 
years ago. 

Vater and Maltebrun have given a few 
hundred examples of such analogies : and 
the systematic writers have supposed that 
they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet 
a single language, the Chilian, has by itself 
more affinities with the languages of Europe, 
than all those mentioned by Vater and 
others, put together ! The foreign or trans 
atlantic affinities of American languages, 
vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to 
the nations. If we suppose that there are 
400 languages in America, and as many in 
the eastern hemisphere, and each to have 
about 2000 roots or essential words only ; 
while the mean affinities are only 25 per 
cent : we shall find as many as 200,000 
affinities ! out of America, in every Amer 
ican language ; and in all the 400, as many 
as 80 millions ! instead of the paltry reck 
oning of 1000 or so. All this is suscepti- 



MATERIALS. 65 

ble of mathematical proofs, and shall be 
unfolded gradually in these pages. 

The theory about the common exclusive 
grammatical structure of all the American 
languages, is equally erroneous and based 
upon partial facts. Instead of all the 
American languages being polysynthetic by 
amalgamating words, we find in America 
many mixt forms, and even the pure mono 
sylabic : while the amalgamation of words 
prevails more or less in Europe and Africa ; 
chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, 
Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the 
Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the 
Sanscrit and all the derived languages. 

It had been asserted that no American 
language was monosylabic : yet Balbi states 
that the Guarani and Maya are such ; Na- 
sera has lately proved the same of the 
Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such 
American groups of languages. But there 
are more ; nay many American languages 
have monosylabic roots, even among the 
most amalgamated groups. 

The most obvious grammatical classifi 
cation of American languages, has escaped 
the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the 
epithetic structure, or relative position of 
ideas. Under this view all the languages 
arrange themselves in three great classes 
or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 
3. Mixt. 

1. The Regular is the most simple and 
natural form : where the roots or nouns are 
6* 



66 MATERIALS. 

prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, 
expressing epithetes or qualities follow or 
are added. This group includes in the 
Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic lan 
guages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the 
Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All 
the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. 
All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 
5. The Bhotiya and many languages of 
Thibet. 6. Most of the INt-gro languages. 
7. Yakut of Siberia, &c. 

In America this group includes my groups 

1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3. Capaha. 
4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related 
thereto in North-west America, the Ka- 
luchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani 
languages of South America, and perhaps 
many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c. 

2. The Resupinate or Reflexed Group: 
where the roots or nouns substantive are 
reversed, following the adjective or epi 
thetes, which are prefixed. This second 
mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the 
languages of China and Tartary. 2. In 
all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, 
English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illy- 
rian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. 
In all the Turkish languages of Turan, 
Bokhara, Turkey. 5. The Newari of Ima- 
laya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South 
Africa. 

In America, it is the most pre vailing form , 
found in my groups 1. Linni or LinapiF. 

2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexi- 






MATERIALS. 67 

can and Othomi languages. 4. Chontal. 
5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North 
America, and in South America. 6. Chili. 
7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many 
more : although hardly indicated by the 
philologists. 

3. Mixt .Form, which employs or adopts 
more or less the two former modes ; although 
there is always a prevailing form, that in 
dicates the original mode of uniting ideas. 
This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit 
and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend 
and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the 
Pelagic arid Italic languages, the Latin, 
Italian, French, Spanish, Greek. 4. The 
Japanese, &c. 

, While in America it is found 1. In the 
Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3. The 
Peruvian languages, &c. of South Ameri 
ca, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 
5, Mizteca. 6. Qpata, and probably some 
others. 

This comparative classification of lan 
guages, will greatly help future investiga 
tions. It will show the improbability of the 
two opposite mcdes of annexing ideas hav 
ing been entertained by the same people at 
any time ; while the mixt form evinces amal 
gamations of ancient nations. We have 
thus acquired another clue to trace primi 
tive connections, another available mean 
to pursue the human steps on earth. 

9. Religions and Mythologies. The 
human opinions on the past and future form 



OS MATERIALS. 

every where ample themes of thoughts and 
actions. From revelations, inspirations, 
oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, 
have arisen all the worships, and rites, dog 
mas and creeds, swaying the human mind, 
through hope or fear, love or hatred. The 
history of religious ideas, is in fact the his 
tory of civilization, since they have sprung 
together in social men. Nearly all the re 
ligions of Asia (which from hence have 
spread throughout the earth along with 
mankind) were found in America: except 
the modern creeds. But the traces of Ju 
daism and Budhism were very faint and 
local. Mahometism was unknown, Bra 
in inism hardly known. Christianity or some 
of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and 
may arise from other sources. The most 
prevailing worships were the primitive Sa- 
heism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism 
or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of 
Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal 
worship. We find throughout America 
many modifications of these creeds : with 
several complex mythologies, more or less 
analogous to eastern dogmas. 

The investigation of these American re 
ligions affords not only an insight into the 
ancient civilization, but many proofs of an 
cient communications with Asia or Africa. 
Throughout North America the Dualism, 
mythologies and fabulous traditions point to 
a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, 
Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the 



MATERIALS. 69 

Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign 
to it. This Solar worship appears in a 
purer form in North America, as far as Peru. 
While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and 
Chili, prevailed several worships of heaven 
ly and terrestial spirits ; somewhat akin to 
the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, 
Iran, India, China and Polynesia. 

American religions admitted, like many 
others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, 
pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expia 
tions, confessions, offerings, hymns, venera 
tion for animals, men and stars. Idols 
painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, 
stone, metals, &c.; bloody rites by human 
sacrifices, scarifications, circumscision, &c. 
But none of these practices were general, 
some were quite local and circumscribed. 
Thus circumscision was only used by the 
Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tu- 
cuman, &c. Traces of a triple god or 
Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio 
to Peru ; but it was no where the prevailing 
religion. As the same idea was found 
among the Celts and Polynesians, it may 
have come by the east rather than Polyne 
sia in the west. 

10. Civilization and Manners. This 
completes the history of all nations. When 
their annals are well known, it becomes a 
very proper appendix to them; when they 
are not, it is a very needful supplement to 
the traditions, &c. But we must not make 
any history consist merely in such an ac- 



70 MATERIALS. 

count, as often done by negligent writers. 
The manners and customs of every people, 
are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or 
improved by civilization, imitation, arts and 
sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any 
test of connections. They are often bor 
rowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused 
after awhile by whims or wars, invented to 
suit the climate and productions it may 
afford. We have positive proofs that the 
Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified 
the customs of all the tribes they conquered 
or visited. This must have happened for 
merly also, by other visits or communica 
tions. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty 
of the origin and duration of the primitive 
American customs, they must be studied, 
as one of the sources and objects of history. 

We find, in ancient America, nearly all 
the forms of social civilization and manners 
of the east. But the Nomadic life with 
camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as 
well as those animals. The American 
cattle or lamas, &c. of South America, 
hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of 
Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, 
were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. 
The Nomadic wandering tribes of America 
w r ere chiefly hunters and fishermen : scat 
tered around the agricultural nations, 
spreading from Canada to Chili. 

All the kinds of governments were known 
in America: Theocracy, despotism, mo 
narchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But 



MATERIALS. 71 

the most prevailing were theocracy among 
the civilized nations, oligarchy among the 
barbarous nations: with two peculiar mo- 
dificaVons, of double kings as among Arabs, 
civil and military; and chiefs of families 
or tribes, as among all primitive nations. 
Queens were known to but few tribes, al 
though the female line w r as often hereditary. 
Written laws and codes were known to the 
Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, 
Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were 
elsewhere preserved by priests or magis 
trates. 

Polygamy prevailed among some tribes 
or castes, but was not universal. The 4 
castes of Indians are distinctly found in 
nearly all the civilized nations, often modi 
fied into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. 
The arts of music, medicine, smithery, 
painting, sculpture, architecture, agricul 
ture, pottery, &c., were well known to 
nearly all. The sciences of geometry, 
geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were 
cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even 
taught in schools and colleges ; with the 
arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the 
country. 

Marsden has well distinguished several 
degrees of civilization in Asia. If no Ame 
rican nation had reached the Greeks and 
Romans, or our modern polished and im 
proved civilization ; it is not extraordinary. 
But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, 
Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly 



72 MATERIALS. 

equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hin 
dus in civilization; not far removed from 
the European civilization of the 15th cen 
tury : nay, in some things superior. The 
second degree of American civilization 
found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the An 
tilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. 
was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, 
Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While 
the third degree found in all the barbarous 
nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, 
Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse 
than what we find among the Fins, Lap 
landers, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and 
Hottentots. 

Individual property in land was almost 
unknown in America; but feodal and tribal 
property well understood. Common pro 
perty of tribes and villages over their ter 
ritories, was the most usual tenure, modified 
by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual 
property existed only for tenements and 
personal property. Warfares, marriages 
and funerals were very different in every 
nation. The weapons of war were clubs, 
arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, 
Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, 
thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There 
was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, 
envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, 
walls, ditches, were used for defence, be 
sides Estopils a peculiar quilted armor. 
Flags, banners, and standards were known. 
The calumets, leaves or green feathers, 



MATERIALS. 73 

council fires, arid white flags were emblems 
of peace. Alliances and confederations 
existed from earliest times, also the adop 
tion of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was 
hardly known; but vassalage much ex 
tended over conquered tribes. 

Dresses and ornaments were quite va 
rious. Seal skins used by the Innuit. 
Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North 
America. In tropical America many 
tribes went nearly naked, with a mere 
apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. 
But the civilized nations were decently 
clothed with cotton shirts and feather man 
tles. The Poncho is a true American 
dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly 
known out of America except Polynesia. (4) 

Women wore long pagnes or gowns. 
They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; 
of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. 
there and elsewhere ; either twisted, plait 
ed or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians 
had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton 
looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and 
all over South America, even by the Ca- 
ribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. 
Among some nations women had the most 
labor to perform ; yet even the men as 
sumed hunting, making canoes, huts, wea 
pons, &c. More civilized tribes worked 
together in the fields : The proud and war 
like employed vassals or slaves. 

Painting the body or face, was usual 
among many nations, but not general. It 
7 



74 MATERIALS. 

was useful against heat and flies, or was 
used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments 
to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs r 
&c., were more or less adopted by men 
and women. The hair was usually worn 
long ; but many tribes cut it in various 
ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even 
when scanty was deemed unbecoming by 
many tribes, and totally eradicated ; but 
some tribes wore beards. The head was 
often left uncovered ; but hats were worn 
in the N. W. and Central America, tur 
bans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns 
in the tropics, Lautas or diadem-bands in 
Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves 
were unknown; but sandals, leggings, lea 
ther clods, and mocassins or slippers of 
various substances, commonly used ; with 
singular snow shoes of bark in winter by 
northern tribes. 

/ 

NOTES OF CHAPTER II. 

1. In 1824, 1 published my first essay 
on American history, a pamphlet on the 
Ancient History of Kentucky , or Central 
North America, before 1770. Although 
it was a mere rude sketch, it contains 
many important historical facts. I was 
too little advanced then in philological 
studies, to give it their support, and many 
of my surmises must be rectified by it. 
My late researches have also greatly im 
paired the general belief of the Tartarian 



NOTES. 75 

origin, and western route of the Mexican 
nations. 

2. I published this presumed key in 
1832 in my Atlantic Journal; but many 
accurate comparisons are yet required to 
confirm my surmises, although the Lybian 
analogies are evident. 

3. In Hughes Travels in Sicily, Greece 
and Albania in 1813--14, published 1820, 
we find this fact about Hesiod s mention of 
maize, used by the poor in mush and cakes 
by the early Greeks : the modern Greeks 
call it Arabo-site, Arabic corn, in Italy it 
is called Grano-turco, or Turkish-corn: 
having reached Greece and Italy through 
the Arabs, and not from America. It has 
been cultivated in Java, Central Africa, 
Soudan, &c. from time immemorial, having 
native names in the Negro languages. Ge- 
belin thinks it was known in Assyria. Polo 
found it in Tartary in the 13th century. 
Frazer lately saw it almost wild in the 
Imalaya mts. : it has never been found 
quite wild in America. 

4. The Poncho is a long strip of cloth, 
with a hole in the middle for the head, the 
ends hanging before and behind, often fas 
tened on the sides. It was used by the 
ancient Mexicans, the Muyzcas, Peruvians 
and Chilians. It has been adopted as quite 
convenient by the Spanish colonists, and 
is very becoming when ornamented. 




PTER III. 



AMERICAN CATACLYSMS or Considera 
tions on the Periods of American Ge- 
ogony, Ontogeny, Floods, and ancient 
population tyc. of both Americas. 

History does not merely consist in accu 
mulating facts: these constitute the annals 
of empires ; but the real philosophical his 
tory has a nobler aim. It seeks results, 
teaches lessons of wisdom, brands with in 
famy the foes of mankind, and inspires 
veneration for the benefactors of the human 
race. It presents examples worthy to be 
followed, and records the crimes to be 
avoided. 

The several departments of history that 
are distinguished as biography, civil and 
ecclesiastical annals, moral and physical 
surveys of mankind, comparative philology, 
archeology, chronology, mythology, &e. 
All combine to instruct and amuse, to record 
the past and present, and to lead to better 
future actions, an improved social order. 
The nations often forget the wise lessons of 
time and experience ; but they are continu 
ally recalled to memory and view by the 
historians, who seek the truth, and setting 
aside the sway of human passions or na 
tional prejudices, present the faithful mirror 
of history to the eyes of posterity. 

Such is my aim. American history has 



CATACLYSMS. 77 

been so much despised or perverted, that 
few lessons, have been drawn from it: yet 
it affords ample scope for reflection, study 
and admiration. Nearly one half of the 
habitable globe, during all the past ages, 
cannot fail to offer a variety of subjects, to 
draw the attention of philosophy, wisdom 
and philanthropy : that mutual benevo 
lence of mankind, which ought ever to be 
felt ; but is so often discarded or forgotten 
through the contrary tendencies of pride, 
lust, cupidity, and all the baneful passions. 

The connections of historical facts with 
all the sciences, afford another useful theme ; 
that may vastly increase our comparative 
knowledge : much of it has arisen, besides 
observation, from accurate comparison, 
analysis and generalization, which combine 
to give results, enlarging the field and 
sphere of human knowledge, in all its 
branches. 

If we go back, by the help of geology, to 
the most remote periods of existence and 
life in this hemisphere, we find it like the 
remainder of the globe, immersed under 
the Ocean. There, in the depths of the 
briny waves, the actual rocks now support 
ing the dry soil, were formed and matured : 
superposed and intermingled by aquatic and 
volcanic phenomena and cataclysms, if not 
by superadded aerial depositions. Then 
were formed the primitive strata of Amer 
ica, ere life had begun to vivify the waters ; 
then were cast the Porphyries, Granites, 
7* 



T8 CATACLYSMS. 

Shales, Basalts, and other primitive or vol 
canic rocks, that are now chiefly found in 
Boreal and Western America, the Andes, 
Mts. Parima, and Brazil, the Austral and 
Boreal Islands, Hayti and the Antilles. 
This was the first period of terrestial Cre- 
tion. 

After this period of unknown length, be 
gan the epocha of aquatic life ; when the 
breath of GOD, moving on the waters, gave 
life and motion to organized aquatic beings; 
1. Plants and Fucites, 2. Spongites and Al- 
cyonites, 3. Polyps and corals, 4. Worms 
and radials, 5. Sluggs and shells, G. Mol- 
lusca and Cephalopodes, 7. Trilobites and 
Crustacites . . . All incipient vegetating 
beings, or inferior unbony animals, gradu 
ally evolved and born in the waters of the 
Sea. . . . Followed by the more perfect 
vertebrated aquatic animals, 8. Fishes and 
Sharks, 9. Snakes and reptiles ; lastly, 10. 
Seals and whales. Some of which require 
shallow water, to dwell and breed . . This 
was the second period of American Crea 
tion: Aquatic life. 

The third epocha is that of the destruc 
tion of aquatic life, by cataclysms and de 
positions, submarine volcanic cavernous 
eruptions or other causes, throwing sudden 
ly in a soft, sandy or muddy state, the sub 
stances that have formed the secondary 
mountains or strata of psamites, argillites, 
calcarites, carbonites, &c., that over 
whelmed the aquatic tribes in their way ; 



CATACLYSMS. 79 

which becoming therein entombed as living 
medals of this globe, declare to us these 
mighty successive cataclysms or floods of 
sand, clay, lime and coal ; now met in vast 
regions, the Alleghanies and Central North 
America, Florida and the Bahama Islands; 
the hills and plains of Brazil, Chili, East 
Peru, and Central Maragnon. . . . This 
was the second period of terrestial forma 
tion in America, the third of successive 
eventful periods. 

The fourth must have been the rise of 
the land above the waters, if not already 
partly begun. The epocha of terrestrial 
upheaving and distortion of strata, by an 
awful inward force ; either volcanic, or ca 
lorific, or of growing crystalization ; form 
ing mountains and islands, raising them 
above the Ocean ; to become the nucleus 
of future Continents. The American hem 
isphere had then probably two great islands, 
in the North and South, with many smaller 
islands between them, in the tropical sea : 
the Alleghany land Atlantis forming two 
others in the east, and many others stud 
ding the two polar regions. The insulated 
mountain tract between Lake Nicaragua 
and the long valley of Choco, must then 
have formed another Island of the Antilles. 
Guyana or Parima was also another large 
island : while Brazil was a vast peninsula 
attached to the Andes. I have endeavor 
ed to express this first configuration of 
America in my two maps of North and 



80 CATACLYSMS. 

South America ; when the Ocean was yet 
about 500 feet higher than it is actually. 
Whether this cataclysm was contempora 
neous throughout, or by successive throes 
must be ascertained by Geogony. . . This 
was the fourth period of terrestrial events 
in this hemisphere ; but the first of terres 
trial separate existence. 

When the dry land had appeared, the 
creative power of GOD exerted upon the 
virgin mould of the mountains, drew forth 
into life, Plants and Flowers, Trees and 
Palms, ; with the successive terrestrial ani 
mals, 1. Worms and Slugs, 2. Insects and 
Spiders, 3, Snakes and Reptiles, 4. Birds 
and Fowls, 5. Beasts and Bats. Streams 
began to flow, valleys were excavated in 
the soft or yielding strata by heavy tides 
and powerful streams : then the fishes of 
the sea ascended the rivers, and filled the 
streams and lakes. A few shell and other 
aquatic animals sent also colonies into fresh 
waters. . . . This was the fifth period of 
terrestrial events ; that of terrestrial life. 

Meantime the land was continuing to 
rise, or the ocean to sink ; the dry soil was 
extending : land volcanoes began to appear 
in the Andes and elsewhere, overwhelming 
some living tribes. The carbonic volca 
noes had new 7 paroxysms, slaty mud involv 
ed terrestrial plants and trees in successive 
eruptions : the clay mud or colored sand 
was forming tertiary strata on the shores, 
involving sea animals, shells, reptiles and 



CATACLYSMS. 81 

fishes. . . This was the sixth period of ter 
restrial events, that of land volcanoes. 

After all these ; mankind was created 
by GOD, and appeared as lord of the earth, 
and the complement of living creation. . . 
This may be deemed another Period, if we 
like ; although it was but the complement of 
the terrestrial living productions, begun in 
the 5th, and probably proceeding in the 6th. 
Where the first man or men appeared and 
dwelt, is unknown or very dubious. Asia 
is commonly deemed the first dwelling of 
mankind, and Central Asia or Thibet the 
cradle of our race : although China, India, 
Arabia, Syria, Ceylon, &>c., claim the same 
honor. But few authors have placed this 
cradle in America, and even then not for 
the Adamites. Yet America had some 
inhabitants before the flood, if we are to 
believe the concurrent traditions of many 
American nations ; who keep the memory 
of it, and point to their refuges. (1) 

Of these American Anti-diluvians we 
know little or nothing : their traces are few 
and uncertain. It would be otherwise if 
we could identify them with the anti-dim^ 
vian Atlantes, or find their diluvial re 
mains. The skeletons found in Guadaloupe, 
and on R. Santas of Brazil, by Captain 
Elliott (described by Meigs in the trans 
actions of American philosophical society 
1827) in tuffa with shells, may have been 
buried there ; like the mummies of many 
American caves, Some of the American, 



82 CATACLYSMS. 

mounds have appeared anti-diluvian ; but 
the fact is not well proved. The subterra 
nean antiquities are also of an equivocal 
character. The town of log houses lately 
found in Georgia, buried under golden clys- 
mian soil, cannot be so remote ; the soil 
instead of diluvial, may be a deep alluvial. 
All the facts on these remote times, shall 
be hereafter collected, presented and ex 
amined carefully. 

Thus, has been presented by geological 
results, a rapid sketch of the American 
periods, t6 the birth of mankind. These 
6 periods or yums, are well ascertained as 
to succession; but their duration is un 
known : and each of them includes several 
subordinate periods ; which it is not needful 
to investigate in these outlines. The works 
on geology may be consulted if required. 
These 6 yums or great periods do not 
answer exactly to the 6 yums or manifes 
tations of the mosaic cosmogony, since 
geogony begins only with the 3d, ending 
with the 5th. 

Such oriental accounts are always de 
serving our attention, and susceptible of 
the deepest philosophical commentary, as 
they mainly agree with all the detected 
facts. But there are at least 3 accounts 
of the creation or cosmogony in the Sepher 
or Hebrew Bible. 1. That of Job. 2. Of 
Moses in chapter 2d of Genesis from verse 
4 to 25 ; in both, no yums, days nor periods 
are mentioned. 3. The usual mosaic ac- 



CATACLYSMS. 83 

count of chapter 1st. ending only at ch. 2, 
v. 3. Even in this usual account more 
than 7 periods can be found, including 
heaven, earth and men. 

These are the real Mosaic periods, with 
his own names, very different from the sub 
sequent Jewish names, in various dialects. 

1. PERIOD OF TIME OR YUM. BRA- 
SHITH Real beginning or Real Supreme 
Being producing ALEIM the Angels, SHMIM 
Heavens, and ARTZ Earth. 

2. YUM. THEU-UBEU Chaos, and 
THEUM Abyss, with RUH Spirit of God. 

3. YUM. AUR Essence of celestial light 
or Ether. First divine manifestation of 
Mshe or Moses. 

4. YUM. RKIO Expanse or sky, diver 
sion of aerial and celestial fluids. 2d. 

5. YUM. Sea and dry land, upheaving 
of land over the waters, or subsiding of the 
ocean. Vegetation. 3d. 

6. YUM. Sun and Moon appearance by 
a change in the misty atmosphere ? with 
XUXBIM stars? 4th. 

7. YUM. Fishes and Fowls, &c. 5th. 

8. YUM. Beasts and cattle, with ADM 
mankind or human emanation, our Adam, 
ZXR male, and NKBE female. 6th. 

9. YUM. Shbioi seventh manifestation, 
Aleim became IEUE Jehovah, the living- 
self-with-self, the supreme or powerful self. 

10. YUM. AD emanation, our mist. 

11. YUM. ADM into GN or Gan. our 
Eden. 



84 ... e . CATACLYSMS: 

12. YUM. OTZ Growth, of lives with 
good and evil. 

13. YUM. NER 4 flowing emanations 
or streams. 

14. YUM. ASHE Intellectual man- 
mate, called afterwards EUA living exist 
ence, our Eve. Self-with-life. 

All these periods should require long 
comments, and discussions, rather physical 
than historical. It is by no means certain 
that the sun and moon are implied in the 6th 
yum. The text says a couple of MARTH 
Centralities EMAUR-GDL and EMAUR- 
KTN Self-great-ether greatest and lesser. 
Some have seen here the solar and lunar 
dynasties of Asia. The XUX-BIM might 
be the XRUBIM of later times. The real 
sun and moon may belong to the yum of 
AUR. The stars, according to Job, were 
in existence before the foundation of the 
earth, and our astronomy teaches this 
implicitly. 

In this cosmogony, the heavenly creation 
takes 4 periods. The grass grows by light 
before the sun had appeared through the 
misty atmosphere, and the fishes come after 
the land and herbs, at the same period with 
fowls. Our actual geology does not con 
firm this last fact ; but a proper explana 
tion of the biblic words would confirm the 
truth. (2) 

Many still consider AISH intellectual 
man as the human race, previous to Adam, 
father of the Adamites; but the concurrent 



CATACLYSMS. 85 

proofs are very slender : nor is their pos 
terity known ; unless Nahash or the snakes, 
Elohim or the sons of God, the Rephains 
or giants, and the Nephilim or apostates, 
be considered as such. Indications of races 
of men different from the Adamites may be 
collected both in the Bible, and in all the 
ancient annals of China, India, Iran, &c. ; 
but no positive connected account has ever 
been made out as yet. 

The Nahash, Hareth or Satan of the 
Bible, is identic with the Nagas (snakes) 
of the Hindus, the Zabul and Dives, (de 
vils) of Iran, evidently men, and foes of the 
Adamites: they are also the U-long or 
antidiluvian dragons of China. In Ame 
rica the satanic notions will be seen in the 
respective account of religions. They 
often assume in this hemisphere the ap 
pearance of volcanic ideas, or of a vampire 
malignant being. But the nations of the 
Linapi group connect the ideas of devils, 
snakes arid foes, all called Ako or JSPakho 
very similar with Nahash and Nagas. 
They assert that they were created by the 
Evil Spirit, were always foes of real men ; 
that they caused the flood, and went after 
wards to America before the Strait of Beh- 
ring was formed. See Linapi Traditions. 

The ALEIM, Elohim or Egregori or 
angels of the Hebrew were instead sons of 
God, and Moses ascribes to them the crea 
tion of the earth ; while Job ascribes it to 
Eloah, the real God. Herder has said 
8 



86 CATACLYSMS. 

that we shall never understand well the 
mosaic history, until we ascertain who 
were these Elohim and Cherubim (3) 
dwelling on earth. My dissertation on 
anti-diluvian history may perhaps help to 
clear the matter ; meantime it may be 
stated that they appear to be the HO-LO 
of anti-diluvian Chinese history, or LO-LO 
of their post-diluvian annals. Perhaps also 
the celestial emperors beginning the history 
of China : the Alorus first dinasty of As 
syria before the flood : the ^dw^-ELOS and 
P EL of the Pelagians. Also the H ELLO 
(old men) of the Egyptians, the PELEI 
(old men or ancestors) of the ancient Illy- 
rians, the LAHI or ancient Thibetans. 

They may be the ELEI or ancient Per 
sians, the Peris or Pelts of Iran, ancient 
beneficent beings. The Arabs and all the 
Semetic nation have preserved that name 
for God, in EL, Allah, Baal, or made of 
it their universal article El, Al, meaning 
HE or the Being : whence also the Pela 
gic and Italic articles IL, L, LI, &c., the 
Spanish EL. By the frequent usual change 
of L into R, we have ER root found in 
many languages for men: forming the 
Her os of Greece, sons of God ; the HER 
or lords of the Germanic tribes, the Seres 
of Thibet or ancient Chinese, Ergaz men 
of the African Atlantes. ErJc man in Turk 
ish or Turan Atlantes, akin to Egregori ! 

In America these similar indications are 
widely spread, and among the most an- 



CATACLYSMS. 87 

cient nations. EL means man in Tolteca 
and Mexican, OL is old and Yollo a spirit 
or angel. EL is son and tribe in Hayti, 
Elohi is land and spirit in Tzuluki. Yol 
means man in the Atakapa language of 
the Cado or Nachez group. Pele means 
the same in Lule of South America ; but 
Peli is soul in Chilian, which approximate 
to Pelcg and Lelex, ancient Pelagian 
tribes. The connections with TEL, TAL, 
TOL, pervade the whole of ancient Ame 
rica, and lead to assimilate with the TOL- 
tecas and TALAS, American Atlantes, 
the Tulans or Asiatic Atlantes, the Auto- 
Toles or African Atlantes. These lead to 
the giants of both hemispheres or ancient 
men of renown. But the subject must be 
postponed, and will be found resumed in 
the history of Austral and Central Ame 
rica, where these atlantes and giants are 
found. 

Returning from this digression ; we may 
resume the geological periods of America 
previous to mankind, in the" six successive 
epochas, already mentioned. 

1. Period. Primitive, aquatic and before 
life. 

2. Period of aquatic organic life. 

3. Period of aquatic cataclysms. 

4. Period of the dry land or islands. 

5. Period of terrestrial life. 

6. Period of terrestrial volcanoes. 
After which begins the human period, 

till the flood. The question whether man 



88 CATACLYSMS. 

or men appeared together, or before or 
after, in both hemispheres; must be left 
undecided. Some writers have even placed 
Eden the GN of Moses in America and 
the Hesperidian Islands of old ; but as the 
Imalaya mountains, valleys and plains, are 
higher than the Andes, older in geological 
series, and more suitable for human life, 
not being volcanic : it is extremely proba 
ble that they were the cradle of mankind, 
rather than America. 

Yet men reached America before the 
flood, and were here at this eventful period. 
But we are ignorant of the precise way they 
came, and how they reached this land 
which was then only a group of large isl 
ands, unless North America was united to 
Asia by Behring Strait, as very probable. 
The clearest traditions point to the east, 
Africa and Europe then united at the 
Strait of Gibraltar, and the Island Atlantis 
as a stepping place. The Mexican tradi 
tions point to Asia, by two different opposite 
quarters, the east and the north west. The 
Uskis or Innuit nations are late comers by 
the north west. The Linapi nations, al 
though earlier, came the same way, and 
over the ice of Behring Strait, after its 
diruption. The Hongwis came the same 
way, although they boast of being Autoch- 
tones, as did the Greeks, which we know 
in both instances to be false. 

The Nachez nations say they came from 
the east. The Olmecas or earliest people 



CATACLYSMS. 89 

of Anahuac point that way also ; although 
both speak of an American flood. The 
Haytians and Cubans were also of eastern 
origin, like all the Aruac nations ; but re 
membered the flood and parceling of the 
islands. The Carib nations appear postdilu- 
vians and the last come in South America ; 
yet the Tamanacs one of the group speak 
of an American flood. The Guarani call 
themselves eastern men, and came from 
Africa after the flood. It is in South 
America, the Andes of Chili, Peru, &c., 
that a positive memory was found of several 
floods and cataclysms, in or near the An 
des, which gave refuge to several tribes. 
Yet it is there also that the most obvious 
philological affinities are found with North 
Africa and the shores of the Mediteranean ; 
while many invasions of foreign later na 
tions are recorded, &c. 

All these antidiluvian notions, and ac 
counts of the American flood, will be care 
fully collected and given. This will form 
the first period of human history in America, 
extending to 2262 years at least, according 
to the computation of the 70; the most 
plausible of all. The Tol-tecas reckon 
nearly the same time between their period 
of creation and their main flood : or with 
trifling differences, less than the various 
terms of Josephus and others ; but various 
other calculations are found in Anahuac. 

Such a period of 23 centuries was cer 
tainly sufficient to people America, and fill 
8* 



90 CATACLYSMS. 

it. The Cainites or Cabils have been deem 
ed parents of the Atlantes and Africans. 
They were skilful, powerful and wicked, 
inventing agriculture and arts, building 
cities &c.: while the Sethites invented astro 
nomy, letters and dwelt in tents. If the 
American Atlantes were antidiluvian, they 
must have sprung from the Atlantes Cain 
ites, KIN of Moses. 

In 1170 years after Adam, the Egregori 
angels of Mt. Ima, came to Mt. Herinon, 
in 20 tribes, under their king Semi-Azar, 
and uniting with the Cainites, gave birth to 
the Rephaim, Nephilim and Etiud, tribes 
of Giants, tyrants and Canibals : who made 
war on the angels and men. They are said 
in the Bible to have gone to 8heol (the 
lower world or South America) with their 
king Belial : where they were drowned by 
the flood. See Universal History. 

The Giants dwelt in Talo-tolo, the world 
Tolo of the Hindus, where we find the 
ToZ-tecas (Tol-people:) therefore America: 
called also Atala and once sunk in the 
waves ; like the Atlantis of the Greek, 
whose Atlantes were also Giants or power 
ful men. The Egregori have been deemed 
the Titans of the Greeks, and Atlas was a 
Titan. Although Gigantic Nations existed 
in America, the Talegas, Toltecas, Caribs, 
Chilians, &c. being often such : the term 
Giant must always be understood to refer 
to powerful perverse men. The names of 
Rephaim andNephilim appear unknown in 



CATACLYSMS. 91 

America, being mere Hebrew epithets for 
giants and apostates. 

During this primitive period, geological 
and physical changes probably proceeded 
in America. The plains gradually appear 
ed, but full of marshes, lakes and wide 
streams, muddy volcanoes, snakes, croco 
diles and obnoxious animals. Which must 
have assailed mankind and greatly impeded 
their settlements. Although the lives of 
men were perhaps longer than now ; yet it 
is probable that the long lives of the Patri 
archs of this period, allude to as many 
Dynasties or gradual nations sprung from 
each other. In this I agree entirely with the 
learned Hebrew scholar D Olivet. (4.) 

Huge beasts and carnivorous animals, 
dwelt then on earth ; in America several 
species of mastodons, elephants, oxen, me 
gatherium, megalonyx, hyenas, bears, &c., 
which prowled in plains and caves, The 
temperature of the earth was higher ; little 
clothing was needed. Men were at war 
with beasts, and among themselves. Vio 
lence predominated in many regions, and 
Noah one of the DP mis of the Hindus, 
a patriarch of the Adamites, a prophet 
according to the Arabs, went over the earth 
to preach against this corruption. Not 
being attended to, he foresaw that a great 
calamity would befall for these iniquities, 
and he prepared himself a THBE or refuge 
in Central Asia: where he collected his 
relations and friends. Some say they were 



92 CATACLYSMS. 

72, our translations of Moses reduces them 
to 8 ; but his 3 sons of Noah, are evidently 
as many tribes. The THBE of Noah con 
tained therefore 4 tribes, including his own, 
and many individuals, besides a multitude 
of animals. 

I do not give now the history of this 
flood. Before it can be given accurately, 
we must collect all the scattered traditions 
about it, compare them, and omitting all 
fabulous and obviously impossible details, 
form a narrative of the whole facts. The 
notions and traditions of the Americans are 
very various, as they do not always point 
to this flood. We find them asserting that 
men were saved in mountains, or caves, on 
rafts or boats. Few, if any, allude to an 
ark, but all to a refuge as THBE. Those 
of Mexico and Peru, are contradictory, al 
luding to several floods, and particularly 
the subsequent of Peleg. 

The most explicit traditions on that score 
are those of the Linapi nations ; although 
the tribes vary the tale, the holy song of 
the real Linapi tribe, alludes clearly to a 
great flood in Asia : when their nations at 
least was partly saved in Tula (the turtle 
land) in Central Asia, by the help of a god 
dess, and Noah or Nana-bush. The men 
were then called Linowi and Linapi : two 
other races of men were saved, the Owini 
(beings) and the Tulapcwi, turtlings or 
atlantes. Besides these foes the Mas- 
kanaka (strong snakes), Nakowa (dark 



CATACLYSMS. 93 

snakes), and the Amangamek, monsters 
of the sea; who caused this dire flood. 
These notions are strikingly similar to the 
Asiatic and Hindu fables about the turtle 
saving mankind at the flood. Nana-bush 
is evidently Noah, his name means Noah- 
Noah-hare, or the Great Noah and Hare. 

The Chinese accounts of the first flood, 
do not allude to any ark, but mountains 
were the refuge of mankind. The Hindu 
account is very near the mosaic ; but has 
no boat, and many pe