Page [unnumbered]
THE BLACK MAN; OR, IAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE. DEDUCED FROM HISTORICAL NOTES, AND
ebfratetA t ttt 6rarumot\ and tagple of Wagtz. Sy v. B. a1'RS, Nearly Thirty
Years a Resident Missionary in the Haytian Republic. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY
THE AUTHOR. TRADE SUPPLIED BY THE AMERICAN NE WS COMPANY, 117, lI9, and 121
Nassau Street. 1869.
Page [unnumbered]
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, By M. B. BIRD, In the
Clerk's Office of the District Court, for the Southern District of New York.
JOHN J. REED, Printer, 43 Centre St., N. Y.
Page [unnumbered]
oft'aUl 11rmort of tl*t 60Mmi1ssmn,6 FORMED BY THE HAYTIAN SECRETARY OF STATE,
FOR THE EXAMINATION OF THE GENERAL MERITS AND BEARING OF THE PRESENT VOLUME.
PORT AU PRINCE, HAYTI, | November 14th, 1867. SIR,-The Commission having gone
through the examination of the work on Hayti, by the Rev. M. B. BIRD, now forward
you their report on that Manuscript. 1st. Although it does not profess to be
a full and entire history of Hayti, it begins with the discovery of the Island;
gives a sketch of the French Colonial system, shows the difficulties and struggles
connected with the establishment of the Independence of our Republic, and continues
a lille of Haytian history down to the fall of General Geffrard. 2ad. The entire
history, as it is given, is in the spirit of a friend, and at the same time,
with perfect frankness: the details of domestic manners are evidently given
in the sense of one greatly attached to our country. 3rd. The Republican institutions
of Hayti, and their political influence upon the masses, are given as facts,
without entering into the supposed motives by which they may have been dictated.
4th. The Commission recommends and encourages the publication of this work,
as useful to Hayti itself, as well as to its foreign friends. We wish its author
to receive every support, and we do not hesitate to say that its publication
would be to the interest of our branch of the human family,
Page IV
iv OFFICIAL REPORT, ETC. first in the English language, which is so widely spoken
both in the West Indies and on the American continent. 5th. Hayti has great
need of Immigration, hence it is desirable that the seven or eight millions
of African descendants in the new world, which speak the English language, should
understand the merits and resources of Hayti. 6th. The Commission, under the
influence of these views and convictions, sincerely desire the publication of
this work, and they earnestly hope that Mr. BIRD may be assisted in every way
in his good intentions. The Commission, Mr. Secretary of State, beg to assure
you of their highest consideration. (Signed) W. G. SMITH, M. D., Chairman of
Commission; GENERAL ST. LUCIEN; GENERAL J. LAMOTHE; JUDGE Boco; J. B. DEHOUX,
M. D.; A. AUDAIN, M. D.; S. PRESTON, ESQ.; J. J. RIVIERE, Ex-Mayor of Port au
Prince, GENERAL A. TATE, Secretary of State; P. ETHEART, Under Secretary of
State; J. B. HEPBURN, Esq.; D. BOWLER, ESQ.; C. PRESSOIR, Esq.; 0. RIVIERE,
Esq.; JUDGE LACRUZ, absent by sickness; G. LOPEZ, Editor, etc.; G. LAFONTANT,
Esq., called away.
Page V
PRE FACE. VARIOUs views having been entertained, even by the friends of Hayti,
as to the real merits of its Independence, it is only due to the Haytian Republic,
that a fair statement should appear before the world on this subject; hence,
one of the leading purposes of the present work is, to show what that Independence
has been; nor has it been thought that this could be fairly done, without bringing
out both the merits and demerits of this interesting question; the national
faults, therefore, are brought out in the sense of true and sincere friendship,
and pointed to as rocks to be shuuned in the nation's future course. Hayti herself
makes no pretensions to superiority; her enlightened sons are conscious of national
defects; it must, however, be acknowledged that injustice has been done her,
especially when the great and extraordinary difficulties of her career are fairly
considered from the beginning; difficulties which must have rendered Independence,
in her case, impossible, had there not been real stamina somewhere. From the
title-page of this work it will be seen that it designs to show what Haytian
Independence has been, rather than what it might or ought to have been; its
real merits, after a candid examination of what is here advanced, must be left
to the fair and honest judgment of mankind. It is of the highest importance
to remember in Haytian history, that although the Haytians fought for the maintenance
of their freedom, they did not themselves choose or seek Independence; this
was rather forced upon them by circumstances which they never sought, and which
were utterly
Page VI
vi PREFACE. beyond their control. The wish of Hayti, evidently was, to remain
faithful to France, but the history of the case will show that this ultimately
became impossible; in fact, the case is clear, that Toussaint L'Ouverture would
have remained faithful to France, but he was convinced at last that her purpose
was to re-enslave his people. The purpose of the present production is neither
eulogism nor censure, but rather to make a fair statement of facts and circumstances
as they have occurred, a thus th have rr o bring out a picture which has been
the production of extraordinary Providences, ruling in the storms of human passions;
a picture made striking by the great Master of events; in fact, the whole case
of Hayti seems to indicate something altogether unusual, a special purpose on
the part of Providence in rendering her independence inevitable, seems to be
singularly manifest; it will, therefore, be easily understood that the hope
of rendering service to Iayti herself, constitutes one of the leading motives
of the work now before us, and may ultimately lead to its translation into the
French language. But the fact of seven or eight millions of the descendants
of Africa in the new world, speaking the English language, seems to render it
desirable that it should first appear as an English work, the more so, as one
of the leading objects is, the general interests of the " Black Man."
Reasonings and opinions of different shades and bearings have indeed been expressed
and pursued in the course of this work, as the result of long experience and
continuous observation, and with an earnest desire for the welfare of the descendants
of Africa in the new world; but they must, together with the general subject
in which they have all originated, be left before the tribunal of a Christian
public. The present volume might be considered as a plea for independence, whenever
the indications of Providence seem plainly to point to it, for whatever reasons,
hence the present work is preceded by an introduction, having for its object
the
Page VII
PREFACE. Vii general development of this important question, and especially
as it is here meant. It will, therefore, be seen that independence, as it regards
both Hayti and Liberia, is here considered as a vital point, not indeed in any
exclusive or isolated sense, yet still, in the strictest sense of national identity,
which might, and should be, compatible with the same liberality towards foreigners,
as is practiced by France, America, and England, and as unquestionably will
ultimately be imposed, by the power of universal light and interest, upon the
human race at large, as the natural and inevitable result of that close contact,
into which all the nations of the earth must ultimately be brought, by means
of electricity and steam. It has been thought that the present moment is peculiarly
adapted to the appearance of these " Historical Notes," etc., for
it is undeniable, that the course of events with regard to the descendants of
Africa, has brought out, by extraordinary means and circumstances, the clearest
and strongest proofs of a Divine rule in human affairs, that were ever made
visible to mortals; hence we have recently seen, both in America and Europe,
some of the greatest struggles which have ever been known among men, followed
by such an extraordinary remodeling of nations, as was never before recorded
on the page of human history, the well pronounced supreme will having been,
that some should entirely disappear, while others should stand fast, with even
great acquisitions! Many are the indications which might be regarded as expressions
of the Divine-will, that Hayti should remain an Independent Nation; this, however,
will not hinder the coming on of a power of circumstances, which will compel
her to develop and practice those true principles of Liberty, which alone can
secure her destiny, independence and permanent prosperity. It will be seen,
both in the introduction and also in the body of this work, that the formation
of national independ
Page VIII
Viii PREFACE. encies, by the Black and Colored people of the American continent,
is freely entered into, as a question which can now involve no injury to any
interest or community. Political Justice having finally placed all shades of
complexion on the same level, this question is made both an open and a fair
one, and like every other, is to be either received or rejected, as opinions
may prevail. The subject of Independence, in the sense here advocated, is not
of recent adoption by the author, as may be seen by the " Liberia Herald,"
under the title of " A Voice to Liberia," for 1858; nor are the convictions
which constitute the subject of that piece, in the slightest degree lessened
by passing events. It will, however, be seen that isolated independence is not
here advocated, but simply that which constitutes the glory of France, England,
and America, compatible with the strictest identity, and at the same time with
the most unbounded intercourse with the whole human family, without which, these
last named nations never would have been what they now are. The discovery of
Hayti and its aboriginal inhabitants are but glanced at in this work; nor has
it been possible to enter very extensively into the Colonial system under the
French, although it should not be forgotten that the leading minds in the Haytian
Revolution had been fostered under Colonial rule; and it is due to Hayti to
state here, that one of her ablest and most worthy citizens,* has done justice
to his Colonial Black and Colored predecessors, in the great work of Haytian
Independence, by transmitting to posterity both their names and deeds. The following
extract, from the author just referred to, will become this preface: "
Before the proclamation of Independence, or the final organization of the Country,
there were men among us who did not * Beauvais Lespinasse.
Page IX
PREFACE. ix hesitate to sacrifice themselves for the future happiness of the
African race, and it would be impossible not to admire the courage shown, by
some of them, in the midst of slavery and prejudice, while the volunteered,
and self-inflicted hardships and privations of others who sheltered themselves
from despotism, in inaccessible mountains, is worthy of note. "What anguish,
what tribulation prepared men for the hour of bloodshed in the cause of liberty
and independence! "Would Julien Raymond, Ferrand de Baudieres, Oge, Chauvannes,
Boury, Pinchinat, Bauvais, Lambert, Rigaud, Villate, Boukman, Jean Francois
Biassous, Polverel Santhonasse, Toussaint L'ouverture, Moise, Charles Belar,
Sylla, Sans Souci, Lamour Derance, leave us at rest in our work of 1804 if we
did not acknowledge the services they rendered us?" The author himself
admits their excesses; it must, however, be confessed that but few of the noted
leaders of mankind have come out of the great battle for human liberties unstained.
It will doubtless be evident that it has been the design of this work to bring
out the religious and general moral bearing of Hayti. This, to the sincere Christian,
will be deeply painful and distressing; it is, however, hoped that this question
is made sufficiently clear, not only to show the national character in this
sense, but also to convince the Evangelical Churches of America and Europe,
that if IIayti had had the attentions which were unquestionably due, not only
to her peculiar and extraordinary circumstances, but to the spirit of religious
liberty which she has so long manifested, her position, in a moral point of
view, might at this moment have been wholly different to what it is, as may
be easily and justly inferred from the statistics of Protestantism, here given,
showing an extent of success which, in so Roman Catholic a country, is certainly
worthy of special notice; the more so, when the very limited means by which
it has all been accomplished, are fairly. considered. But we now leave this
production, with all its defects, be
Page X
X PREFACE. fore the world, as having originated in a desire to maintain right
principle, and render it triumphant, by doing justice to Hayti; for, whatever
may have been or still are its defects, they have resulted from that depravity
of fallen man, which is so fully recognized by the Christian Church, and which
she binds herself to correct, by her declarations to the world that she possesses
all that is necessary for the healing of the nations! A residence of nearly
thirty years, among a newly formed nation such as IIayti, as in some sense a
Teacher, will perhaps be a sufficient apology for a didactic tone, now and then
seemingly assumed, sincerely meant as a friendly warning of those rocks ahead,
on which so many nations have already wrecked.
Page XI
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON THE ADVANTAGES OF NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE, AS A'GENERAL
QUESTION. The realm of liberty alone, I call My home! THE present production
on Hayti is by no means intended as a full history of that country, although
the events recorded are generally placed in chronological order, and it is presumed
that the main out-lines of its history may be found embodied in the work. The
main design of the present effort is to bring out one great and important fact,
which the great Ruler of all things has so manifestly established, by those
various divisions of the human race, which at present make up the great family
of man. The fact in question is, simply, that the spirit of emulation, which
doubtless has designedly resulted from the divisions and independencies which
at present exist among mankind, is most salutary and powerful, bringing out
as it does and must, not only the capacities of our being, but also the vast
resources of nature in general; this same principle is also actively and perseveringly
developed between families and communities, and is evidently intended to keep
the entire human
Page XII
Xii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. family in the most productive activity; hence history
has made it manifest that this great moving principle has ever been the most
active and powerful among the most advanced nations in all ages of the world;
nor is it less powerful at present than it has ever been in any former age of
human history; in fact, never did this principle work with such driving power
as in the present advanced state of everything. We find yet that the most distinctive
peculiarities attach to all the great divisions of mankind. The Anglo-Saxon,
Celtic, and Teutonic branches, as well as others, have their various and distinctive
peculiarities, while at the same time this is to be understood, simply in the
sense of fact, not at all in the sense of excluding barriers, or in the slightest
degree interfering with mutual and cordial intercourse. That Africa, therefore,
and its descendants should form a distinct branch of mankind, would seem to
be only in the natural order of things; nor does it follow that this should
be understood in any exclusive sense, but simply in the sense explained by God
himself, in what is so plainly to be seen in the various ranks and orders of
human beings, scattered over the face of the earth, in the forms of families,
tribes, and nations, all of which have ever instinctively recognized a universal
brotherhood! Hence Independence, as it is distributed by Divine Providence over
the world, shows a just and salutary principle; there is nothing in it exclusive,
and its useful working among the nations is evident, yea, the hope we derive
from it is great and good, serving as it does as one of the mainsprings in the
general welfare of the world. We may, therefore, take it up as a great fact,
that the civilized divisions of man never would, or could. have been what they
are but for their independence, and that as a whole, the grand spectacle of
human activity and develop
Page XIII
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Xiii ment, commercially, scientifically, and even religously,
would never otherwise have been what they now are. The emulating power which
has ever existed among them all, has produced that admirable and ever working
whole, which now offers to the general gaze of universal intelligence. With
these views before us, it will be seen that the work in question, bearing the
title of the "Black Man," etc., has for one of its objects, to show,
that the divisions of the human race are only a part of the order of things,
and that, tlerefore, Afiica, and her widely spread children, constitute one
main division in this great whole. That IIayti should be at the head of an African
subdivision cannot be any matter of surprise, nor can the design of her independence
fail of being recognized. Hence our present direct purpose is to bring out the
fact, that the Haytian Republic possesses in itself every material, and resource
of every kind, to place it on a level with any other nation as to general merit,
and at the same time to show what the Haytian people are, mentally, morally,
or otherwise. It will also be the aim of the following pages, to demonstrate
from the history of IIayti itself, that she never could have been what she now
is, but for her independence, whatever may have been, or still are, the defects
of her Government, or the management of any of the departments of the national
interests, which it need not be concealed are many. Tile great imperfections
of IIayti stand out before the world, and although the intelligent Haytians
themselves are ever ready to recognize them, yet they justly demand that the
exceptional circumstances of their origin as a nation, over which they had no
control, should be fairly considered, not indeed in the sense of justifying
error of any kind, but rather as explanatory, especially as the Haytians, as
a people, can only be considered as simply on their way to understand the true
principles of free Government, they never
Page XIV
Xiv INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. having been transmitted to them by their wiser French
predecessors. The present volume is also intended to remind all who are disposed
to think fairly and dispassionately on the national character of Iayti, that
nations, as well as individuals, invariably receive the stamp of the circumstances
which gave them birth, and which, should they have been unhappy, cannot be effaced
but by long years of every kind of improvement. With this fact in view, it will
not be difficult to understand the peculiarities and characteristics of the
people in question, for Hayti must, after all, be judged by the depths of error
and injustice from which she, as a nation, has risen into existence; she did
not, like some, spring from free institutions, notwithstanding they were her
aim-she indeed rushed toward them, but to arrive at the accomplishment of her
wishes, she had to make her way through fiercely conflicting elements of every
kind; the instinctive longings for liberty were there, but how to use it, when
once seized, was yet to be learnt.'It is not, however, intended by anything
here advanced that nations, as well as individuals, never create their circumstances,
or that they are not responsible for their need of reformation, whenever progress
and amelioration may have been at their command, nor is it pretended here, for
a moment, to justify the present condition of the masses of the Republic of
Hayti; guilt is unquestionably at her door in this matter. The history of this
Republic has yet to be written, and whenever it is fairly brought out it will
show that the intensest fervor in the cause of Liberty-without that wholesome
moral power-which is to be found in Christianity only, places a nation on a
dangerous track. The bare events, making up this general history, are already
well recorded and detailed by several Haytian authors of deserved celebrity,
particularly by T. Madiou (Fils), and B. Ardouin; but to bring out all the lights
and shades of that ~~L~r~V~~L) N~V V N 0~
Page XV
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. XV phase of humanity, which a full and entire history
of Hayti in all its bearings must present, remains yet to be done, and doubtless
will be accomplished by some able IIaytian pen at a future day, to the advantage
not only of the great African family, but to man at large-a work the more to
be desired from the fact, that the enemies of the.African race are not yet entirely
silenced. The dark shades of Slavery, which for many years have hung. over mankind,
withering and concealing so much of real worth in man, and especially as to
the true character of the African, are now rapidly dispersing, and the clear
light of simple truth is breaking forth, which slall ultimately expose all false
reasoning and demonstrate that man is man, of every hue. Clouds, indeed, still
roll over us, and long will, but the glorious sun of truth is, nevertheless,
rising to its zenith I The forming power of Independence upon nations and individuals,
is too evident to need any reasoning; those who have well noted the influence
and power of national institutions upon collective masses, as well as upon individual
character, will be prepared to understand the difference, between the Black
Man independent, and, in a national sense, in his own house, under a Government
of his own formation, and the one under the influence of a foreign element,
although probably with vast advantages. It is not intended that there are no
advantages to be derived from contact with a superior element, but it is maintained
that there is an ennobling power in true and well-managed Independence; and
that general contact, in this sense only, has its full effect, when the soul
of Independence is present; hence the manly bearing of the IIaytian, which is
unquestionably the result of his own national institutions, independence, and
education. It will, of course, be understood that we are not here speaking of
the ignorant masses of the people, although even with them an air of conscious
independence is manifest. The
Page XVI
Xvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Haytians, however, have more than ever to learn, that
their independence must fail in true dignity, without sound moral principle
universally diffused. We have, indeed, pointed out the Black Man as especially
benefiting by independence; this has been done in the sense of a general principle,
and is, therefore, as applicable to him as to the rest of the human family;
perhaps, indeed, there are peculiarities in his case, as relating to the present
age, which might make this great principle specially applicable to him, and
render the designs of Providence, as to his independence, yet more clear and
striking. Already the Haytian commerce, as resulting from independence, is comparatively
great; nor should it be lost sight of, that the public revenues are created
by the same organized and legalized system of Patents, Customs, Licenses, etc.,
as in all other civilized countries. It is an interesting and important fact,
that Hayti is at this moment, and for a long time past, has been carrying on
an extensive and increasing commerce with the United States of America, which,
for some time past, has been said to be worth three millions of dollars per
annum; this is to be understood as relating to the French part of the Island
only. Also, with England, France, and Germany much is doing commercially; and
it is not to be supposed that the extensive correspondence, and constantly calculating
intercourse with foreign nations, can be without its general and powerful results
upon the interests and civilization of this nation, especially when it is remembered
that Scriptural education has, during the last quarter of a century, widely
sown the seeds of truth, while at the same time thousands of Haytians, although
not converted to God by a new birth unto righteousness, have nevertheless opened
their eyes to see that true religion is, God in man, and that alone; and as
far as convictions are concerned, have shaken off the iron yoke of error in
many things, as incompatible with real moral progress,
Page XVII
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. XYii that all these powerful elements should have been
so long at work without effect, is not to be supposed. Let the thinking part
of mankind open the details of these facts, and it will most certainly be seen
that national Independence is the road to dignity; this, it is true, has never
been doubted of the White Man, nor has there ever been any real reason to doubt
it in the case of the Black Republic of Hayti, notwithstanding much error, and
the fact that she has yet much to learn. Time was, when the idea of the formation
of an African Independency, in any sense, from the vast Black population of
the Uiited States, was looked upon with suspicion and a frown; fear was felt
that the great cause of Justice before the law would suffer, by weakening the
ranks of those who would thus be left to struggles for rights supremely dear,
but the arm of the Almighlty has now been revealed, right has triumphed over
wrong, and an Independency under present circumstances would, therefore, be
simply another competitive power in the earth, bringing out and completing the
boundless resources of human beings; showing also, that the sons of Africa are
not sent back to savage life by Independence, as both Hiayti and Liberia attest,
where wealth and learning have at least commenced their elevating power, and
will, doubtless, by the aid of general knowledge, true religion, and commercial
intercourse, raise them ultimately to rank with the most civilized and prosperous
nations of the age. Truly, the great principles of Liberty and Independence,
rightly understood, are the glory of our times; so much so, that, Liberty a
failure! has now become too absurd, both as an expression, and even as a thought,
for use; rather it is Despotism and Slavery that have proved to be utter, and,
let us hope, eternal failures! Men are now beginning to see what they long refused
to see, or understand, viz., that universal freedom is universal wealth! But
the burden of our song is Independence! Nor does
Page XVIII
Xviii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. the admitted fact that Hayti ought to, and might
have done better, in any way diminish either its glory or its dignity. If Hayti
has at all risen from her starting point, as she unquestionably has, then has
she demonstrated to the world, that she possesses both the elements and capacity
for Progress. The fact of Law, Mathematics, Literature, Commerce, etc., forming
fields, wllere intelligence has unquestionably shown powers which do honor to
this branch of the human family, demand just notice; while at the same time,
Independence in this case, having placed the nation in official intercourse
with the leading Governments of the day, has brought out state-documents not
inferior to those of other nations, as will appeal from the following "Historical
Notes," while the Haytian Bar, with the Medical Faculty, show men of all
shades worthy of their professions. In fact, the wealth already accumulated,
both in intelligence and gold, afford ample proof that Independence in Hayti
is not, and cannot be a failure; swarming evils, indeed, abound, which even
seem to threaten every good; the fact of the utter corruption of human nature
is as evident with Independence as it is under the greatest despotism, hence
the great stress laid on the necessity of moral culture, as applying to every
individual in a nation, rich and poor, high and low. Let it not, however, be
supposed that the Independence advocated in these pages, in reference to the
" Black Man," is in any sense exclusive; it is rather that which belongs
to man as a social being, and which forms the glory of England, France, and
America; an Independence which, while it extends shelter to all, retains at
the same time a perfect national identity, while it tells upon every child in
the nation, stamps its character upon each family, is seen in the peasant's
gait as he strides his mountain tops, and in the more developed townsman is
visible as he paces his own streets. Unconscious, bold, instinctive are the
airs, Of those who feel as if the earth were theirs!
Page XIX
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Xix Hayti and Liberia have, indeed, been exclusive in
their Independence; but this, it must be admitted, has been rather from necessity
than choice, as the history of each country will show; this necessity, however,
no longer exists in either case, and it is for them to judge whether they will
not, by perpetuating such defiant attitudes, in excluding those who now freely
open their doors to them, expose themselves to the sarcasm of the age;-exclusiveism
cannot belong to man as a family; hence all walls of separation between mankind
must everywhere speedily fall; the utmost intercourse, or legitimate amalgamation,
being in no way incompatible with the most complete national Independence and
identity. It may be thought by some, both Black and White, that the tendency
of the present work, in favoring a separation between two of the main branches
of the human race, is more lowering than otherwise to the dignity of the "
Black Man," the contrary, however, is most unquestionably the aim of the
author of these pages; in fact, it would be difficult to show that Independence
is, or can in any way be, degrading, nor could any one sincerely entertain such
a thought; most certainly, Haytian Independence does not mean, or even suppose,
separation, in any isolating sense; hence her capitalists are mainly foreigners,
who may be viewed as among even the greatest supporters of the national Independence.
If we enquire into the origin and cause of the various divisions which have
taken place among men in former ages, we shall find that in most cases they
have been nearly the same; hence, the case of Lot and Abram's herdmen is highly
illustrative of the question before us;-circumstances which men call accidental,
have doubtless mostly originated their needed and salutary divisions throughout
the earth, and we are probably right in concluding that one great law of Providence
is, that the interests of the earth should be developed and worked out, upon
the principle of national Independence; nor have the divisions among men, in
this sense,
Page XX
XX INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. ever involved the idea of degradation; they have rather
been upon the instinctive supposition, of each and all acting independently
for themselves, each thus exploring for himself, and bringing out the general
resources and wealth of nature. Still the question might fairly be urged, has
not a man a right to remain in the land of his birth? To which question the
only possible reply is or can be, that he has I But if there did not, with this
great truth, exist the right in every individual of the human family to change
their place of residence, or their circumstances, and, if possible, better them,
either by emigration or any other fair means, it would be most unhappy for the
world. On this principle, the island of Great Britain, had long since been too
small for its ever increasing population; and, in fact, many other places in
the world would, long ago, have become intolerable from density of population,
had there existed no right to change. The undisputed right, therefore, to remain
in one's native land, is indeed poor, compared with the right to be unrestrictedly
at large-at full liberty, to make the best of the world, and, so to speak, lay
it out to the best advantage! Hence the question of right, even to abandon one's
birth-place, needs no further consideration. This not even forming any part,
properly speaking, of the subject now before us, the right of all men and all
communities to do and act for the best for themselves and their children, in
the course of public events, is universally recognized; and they are wise and
happy who know how thus to appreciate true freedom for themselves and posterity.
This is that true Independence which becomes every man upon earth. It was upon
this sound principle of independence that the immortal founders of those Colonies
which ultimately terminated in the formation of the present great North American
Republic, wrenched themselves and their families from their native shores. Notwithstanding
their entire rights in the
Page XXI
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Xxi beloved land of their birth, they simply, from motives
which appeared to them sufficient, preferred the bleak and cheerless wilds of
the New World, to what they conceived to be the despotism of their native land,
which they felt destroyed the happiness of their homes and ancient fire-sides;
hence they literally flung themselves upon the world, and even wandered about
in the dens and caves of their new-found land, to save themselves from the fury
of untutored man; and yet this painful exchange was even sweet to them-of oppression
for liberty I as the free and spontaneous praises of Jehovah, which rose from
their noble hearts, breaking the long silence of the primeval forests now before
them, attested-although they were not insensible to the endearing sweets of
their ancient homes which they had left behind. Nor is it to be wondered at,
that the grandeur of such a genuine spirit of independence should have impressed
itself upon a nation,.which may now be said to be one of the glories of the
age. The principle, therefore, here advocated, is one which must and does command
the attention of mankind. There may, and indeed will be, various views as to
its present application to the " black man " of the United States;
but the fact that national independence is the highest dignity to which either
he or any other branch of the human family can attain, is not to be controverted.
Nor ever did it occur to any of the descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers, that
their great progenitors in any sense ignored either the cause of freedom or
their friends, by thus departing from their country, and leaving behind them
the great struggle for liberty in which they had so long been engaged; or that
they in any sense descended from their dignity, in leaving the land of their
birth, for the carrying out of the great purposes which they had in view. Rather
their own fathers applauded them, as they wafted from their ancestral shores,
and voluntarily gave up all right to their own birth-place; while they themselves
were cheered with the
Page XXII
Xxil INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. hope of establishing their own just principles of
religious liberty on those far-off shores, towards which they had now set their
faces. And great have been the results of their bold and daring energy-results
which have amply demonstrated the soundness of their principles, thus annihilating
all doubt as to the carrying them out in modern days, by the simple force of
preference and principle, for whatever reason might be deemed sufficient. It
is not meant here to insinuate in the remotest manner, that either the ruling
power or people of the United States intend in any sense the oppression of the
" black man." Nothing can be more evident, than that at the present
moment honesty and justice are in the ascendency in the great American Republic,
on the African question; nor is it to be supposed that the rivers of blood which
have been poured out as the purchase-price of justice, laid down before God
and man, in awful conflict, will be in vain. But the fact is before the world,
that the slavery and degrading bondage of past ages, so fertile in every conceivable
evil, and so ruinous to all ranks and conditions of men, giving even to liberty
itself a sickly hue, and perverting noblest minds, have left behind them false
views and unhappy effects, from which independence would prove a shelter. Such
were the noble Lincoln's views. Such, too, were those of Toussaint L'Ouverture;
and if all Africa could speak on such a subject, it would be with no uncertain
words. Nor will it be surprising that the thought of a black independence, rising
out of the great numbers of the sons of Afiica in the United States, should
have found birth in a HIaytian element, or that it should appear here, although
only in the form of a question. Astonishing as it may seem, it is a fact that
political strife in Hayti has sometimes laid hold of the question of color,
between the blacks and those of mixed blood, for the accomplishment of base
purposes; nevertheless, the man who would presume to think more of his lighter
hue, and in any sense
Page XXIII
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. XXiii act upon it, would, in the land of Toussaint, find
himself greatly mistaken, and would soon feel himself under the necessity of
concealing his empty vanity, in the presence probably of his darker superior,
whose education might possibly have left him in the shade. In fact, it is seen
in Hayti that a complete education is a withering power to the vague hate of
color. But men in all ages have been guilty of absurdities; hence the justly
celebrated Macaulay informs us, that in an age not very remote from our own,
the Irishman was looked down upon with absolute contempt, by his lordly and
conceited English brother; nor does the great historian fail to make this singularly
plain. And such, too, has been the course pursued in all ages; shades and straws
have been the causes of rivers of blood, and peace has often come about only
from sheer exhaustion. Nor would it be difficult to understand that thousands
of; recently freed men, from similar circumstances, might gladly avail themselves
of an open door of deliverance from elements which are in contact with God himself,
and cannot but be productive of anguish.- It might, indeed, be said, Live them
down! But there are various ways of doing this; nor can there be any doubt of
the effectual power of a Christian and well-ordered independence in such a case.
We, however, are here reminded that the social question is not settled as a
mere matter of right. The "black man" must command, intellectually
and morally. His well-formed soul must be the power. This must be his demonstration
that "all men are equal!" This, too, is the great truth which would
justify a constantly open door to a well understood independence, for all who
might wish, from any consideration, to change either their place of residence
or national style of life, where the " black manl" might rise in independent
freedom. Hayti and Liberia-whatever their past history may have been-are now
free and independent nations, and are both
Page XXIV
XXiV INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. advancing in all the interests and prosperity of
the age. They are giving proof of the soundness of the great principle which
it is the aim of this volume to illustrate, and which constitutes the glory
of their national existence. An exodus in any sense is not here meant. All that
is thought of in the present reasonings, should be the result of unconstrained
choice, whether for or against. "Let each one be fully persuaded in his
own mind." All motives being entirely Christian, all will be safe. The
black man, or any other, who might wish an element of yet greater freedom in
any respect than that which he now realizes, is only the renewed case of thousands
of every past age. Like his predecessors of all the past, he withdraws to wherever
he pleases, and from whatever motive he pleases. Hie does not ask about his
right to remain here or to go there. Ile, as a Christian, follows his moral
instincts, and what may seem to him the leadings of Providence. Let even millions
move. Nothing need be feared from the utmost liberty of action, while the honor
of man of every shade is the sole motive and aim. It will be easily understood
that the ground-work and elevation from whence all these views are taken, is
Hayti; nor can anything be more certain than that the reasonings here adopted,
as well as the feelings here expressed, are very decidedly those of the enlightened
and educated portion of the Haytian people; while it cannot be denied, whatever
be the national defects of Hayti, that the present educated classes of this
country are sufficiently numerous and powerful, fully to establish and demonstrate
the great question before us, that independence is its true dignity. That there
ever should have been an entirely uneducated class in Hayti, is to be deplored;
but this evil is now recognized, and its sole cure is now well understood. The
Christian Churches, therefore, that have ears to hear, " let them hear!"
With regard to the great mission of Hayti, as given it by
Page XXV
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. XXV God, in a Christian, national sense, and in the order
of Providence, which we may presume was to prove that man of every hue is man,
many Christian men, to whom great deference is in every respect due, have seemed
to hesitate as to the success realized in this respect. Whether this hesitation
has been well founded, or whether there has been in all such cases a sufficient
knowledge of Hayti, to warrant the conclusions arrived at, remains to be considered.
Much, in such cases, would depend upon the amount of expectation which may have
been entertained. If the class of persons referred to have expected of EIayti
a model Republic, in vwhich all the details of free institutions and free government
should be entirely developed, then there might well be hesitation. The question,
however, is, whether such an expectation was fair and reasonable. Can we fairly
overlook the inevitable distance which there must, in the nature of things,
be between national infancy and national maturity? This overlooked, disappointment
would become certain. Let, then, the law of nature and plain truth be here carried
out, and all difficulty in the case will cease; by this law it will be at once
evident that we only reap that which we sow; and without any reasoning, we understand
that that which was never sown at all, can never appear. The question, therefore,
which naturally arises in this case, is-What has been sown in Hayti, morally,
politically, or otherwise? This question demands fair and serious attention;
for if the evil seeds of false and pernicious principles, religiously, intellectually,
and politically, have been sown broadcast, all further hesitation must evidently
cease. Nevertheless, the mission of the Haytian nation was, it may be presumed,
to develop and establish the character of the black man. This may not have been
done as probably many expected it to be; but it is certain that the great law
of God and nature, as we have just referred to it, has been carried out and
fulfilled.
Page XXVI
XXvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. An Anglo-Saxon ancestry might have placed everything
on a different track in Hayti; yet it would not be difficult to show that the
land of Toussaint has not been the least amongst its sister Republics in the
new world, whose origin has been more or less similar. Hayti has already demonstrated
the fallacy of much that was once said of the African, and to our great astonishment,
is still persisted in by a deservedly distinguished traveler of our own day,
who has perhaps immortalized his name by his African discoveries; but whose
views as to the African as a man, do not appear to harmonize with those of the
great Livingstone. To one who has resided long in Hayti, it is somewhat amusing
to hear that the Negro, after a certain age, is worth little in literature or
mental power. It would be a curious enquiry to examine on what ground this is
said-how and why is this vitality lost? and is it in harmony with the experience
of five and twenty years educational labor in Hayti? Men that have had romance
enough in them to face black savages, and sometimes tremble for their lives
among them, are not always the best judges of the mental powers of such branches
of the human race. The blacks of Hayti, who have received a good education either
in France or in their own country, know how to prize it. Those who think differently
might make many a test in that country, where some well educated blacks might
be found who, mentally, are yet youthful at sixty! In fact, such reasoning is
simply the abandonment of truth; and in the case of the great traveler just
referred to, goes to show that it is possible for even great men, of a certain
mental style, to travel amongst the savages of Africa until they arrived at
the conclusion that they were, in their origin, "pre-Adamic!" or as
impious mortals might suppose, a preliminary essay of creative power, intended
to produce a man of inferior order. Can this be seriously meant? Rather is
Page XXVII
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Xxvii it not an empty freak of an irreverent imagination?
It is not, however, uncommon for the reasonings of able men to lead to erroneous
conclusions. The conclusions of the traveler in question, as to African incapacity,
were doubtless those also of Julius Caesar and his attendants, as to the ancient
Britons, when they first landed on their shores. Whether, therefore, the final
decision of the class of men now referred to, that all attempts to raise such
branches of the human race is useless, either by Christian missions or otherwise,
is well founded, may be very safely left to the results of experience. The facts
on this subject, both in Hayti and elsewhere, are indeed stubborn, nor do they
leave any doubt on which side the real visionary is found on this question.
Most unhappy would it be for uncivilized humanity to be left to the tender mercies
of those who are quite undecided as to whether human beings, under certain circumstances,
are men at all. Hayti has at least demonstrated the existence of sound mental
material in the African; and although this is a great and triumphant step, it
must nevertheless be admitted that she might and ought to have done better still.
Page XXVIII
Page XXIX
CONTENTS. Page OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE HAYTIAN GOVERNMENT COMMISSION...... 3
PREFACE........................................................ INTRODUCTORY
REMARKS.......................................... 11 CHAPTER I. Discovery of
Hayti.-Native Indians.-Gold discovered.-Indian and Negro Slavery. -Arrival of
the French -Case of Oge.-First French Expedition.-" La Crete a Pierrot."-Exports.-Vandouism.French
Revolution, Spirit of, in Hayti.-Toussaint faithful to the French.-Toussaint
declines being King.-He Rules the whole Island.-He is' captured by the French..........................
31 CHAPTER II. French Cruelty to Haytians.-Dessalines proclaims Independence.Eight
hundred Whites fall at St. Marks.-Ferrand's Proclamation.Dessalines marches
on Santo Domingo.-Viet flogged to death.Dessalines retreats.-He is shot.-'*
L'Assemblee Constituante."Christophe marches on Port au Prince.-The Republicans
routed.Christophe retreats-His Laws on Marriage, etc.-The two States compared.-Gen.
Borgella joins the Republic.-Christophe pro- qc claimed Kingg..............................................
58 CHAPTER III. Distribution of Lands.-Petion a Dictator.-Republicanism the
choice of the Educated.-Ardouin on the Distribution of Lands.-Christophe attacks
the Republic. -Desertion to the Republic.-He builds Laferriere.-His Palace.-Candler's
Description of it.-Case of
Page XXX
XXX CONTENTS. Page Medina.-Christophe's Schools. —He is smitten with Apoplexy.Fails
in mounting his horse.-Commits Suicide.-Indemnity to France.-Presidency for
Life.-House of Represe ntatives.-Esmongart to Christophe.-Petion offers Indemnity.....................
93 CHAPTER IV. First Wesleyan Missionaries -Pressoir Persecution.-New Representative
Body.-Mackenzie on the Courts, etc.-Amount of Exports in 1818.-Petion's Fuueral.-Boyer
President.-Great Public Fire.Boyer takes the North.-He takes the Eastern part.-The
Age blameable, not Hayti.-The Newspapers published.............. 121 CHAPTER
V. The Indemnity.-Arrangements with France.-First American Immigration.-Camp
Meetings.-Boyer's good negative.-Code Rural.Blowing up of the Arsenal in 1826
-Question of Population.-All started from Europeans................... 149 CHAPTER
VI. The Executive Sovereign an error.-Periodical Presidency considered.-Source
of Revolutions. -Cayes Revolutionary. -Herard Dumesle and St. Preux.-The House
expels them.-Rev. J. Tindal arrives.-His health fails.-Revs. W. T. Cardy and
W. Touler arrive.-Offer to make the Yaqui navigable.-J. Candler.-Boyer altogether
French.-Freemasonry in Hayti.-Candler on the Military System.........................................................
167 CHAPTER VII. Arrival of M. B. Bird at the Cape.-Arrival of J. T. Hartwell
at Port au Prince.-J. Candler and the Priest.-Different classes of Funerals.-A
National University desirable.-The Earthquake of 1842.-Opening of the Wesleyan
Church at Port au Prince........ 192 CHAPTER VIII. Herard Riviere revolts.-The
Government without the means of transport.-lBoyer sends forces. —They
fraternize.-The alarm
Page XXXI
CONTENTS. XXXi Page gun.-Boyer abdicates.-Riviere enters the Capital.-Ten thousand
troops in Port au Prince.-The new Government inaugurated."L'Assemblee Constituante."-Bad
elements creeping in.-The government Provisoire deserving.-M. B. Bird's journey
to the South.-He preaches in a Catholic Church...................... 222 CHAPTER
IX. Remarks on the Journey.-Provisional Government attempts the Education of
the Masses.-Gurrier proclaimed President.-Postal Arrangements.-Death of Guerrier.-Pierrot
President.-He enters Port au Prince.-Baptist Mission founded at Jacmel.-RichU
pro claimed President.-Wesleyan School opened at Port au Prince. 263 CHAPTER
X. Rich6 arrives at Cayes.-His Proclamation.-His Death.-Soulouque President.-IIe
leaves for the Spanish part.-J. T. Hartwell builds at the Cape.-Faustian the
I -M. B. Bird's memento to the Government.-Jerdmie Wesleyan Church finished
by C. H. Bishop.Opened by M. B. Bird.-Final Coronation.-Cannibalism.-Midnight
Imperial entry to Port an Prince.-Dr. Smith's Pamphlet........ 280 CHAPTER XI.
The family is the nation.-Boys and Cigars.-Woman in Hayti.-The Freedmen of the
States.-Wooden cross not Christ-Haytian Costume.-Haytian table.-Haytian furniture.-A
native Artist.-Music in Hayti -Funerals, Baptisms, Marriages.-Masonic Funerals
- Sitting at doors.-Public roads.-Mothers absorbed in Commerce.Divorce.....................................................
317 CHAPTER XII. Soulouque falls -Geffrard slips into Port au Prince.-Hayti
Representative.-The masses as they ever were.-Cannibals executed.Steamers now
familiar to Port au Prince.-Water works commenced.-Blowing up of the Arsenal.-Introduction
of Gas.
Page XXXII
XXxii CONTENTS. Page Improvements in Music.-Prisons.-Penitentiary.-Religious
Liberty.- Concordat.- Protestant Statistics,- Methodist Financial Committee...................................................
353 CHAPTER XIII. The Immigration.-Its failure.-Assassination of the President's
daughter.-Intended public meeting on the death of Lincoln.Quarrel between the
English and Salnave.-Geffrard's last Message.-Geffrard embarks for Jamaica.-New
Government........ 387 CHAPTER XIV. The cause and cure of Haytian Revolutions......................
412 CHAPTER XV. African Character as developed in Hayti..........................
437
Page 31
HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE. CHAPTER I. Discovery of Hayti.-Native Indians.-First rupture
with the Spaniards.-Gold discovered.-Indian and Negro Slavery.Arrival of the
French.-The American Colonies rise.-Case of Oge.-First French Expedition. —"La
Crete a Pierrot."Exports.-Religion in the Colony.-Vandouism.-French Revolution,
Spirit of, in Hayti.-Liberty proclaimed in France.Toussaint faithful to the
French.-Toussaint declines being King.-He Rules the whole Island.-His rule severe.-He
is captured by the French. The great Columbus, star of modern days, Went westerly,
and glowing, stood, over A new found world! HIAYTI was discovered by Christopher
Columbus, on the 6th of December, 1492. The name of the island is said to have
meant, in the native Indian language —among many other things-" High,
Mountainous Land," but Columbus, on discovering it, thought it greatly
resembled Spain, and therefore gave it the name of " Hispaniola,"
or little Spain: subsequently, St. Domingo, or St. Domingue, was for many years
the name by which it was generally known in Europe; since, however, the Declaration
of Independence by the Haytians in 1804, the ancient aboriginal name has been
revived and adopted. This large and important island is
Page 32
32 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, now, therefore, generally known by the name of Hayti.
The entire island is upwards of four hundred miles in length, from east to west,
and about one hundred and eighty miles in breadth. It is situated between 17
and 18 degrees- north latitude, and between 71 and 79 west longitude from Paris.
Its situation with regard to the adjacent Antilles, is peculiarly central, having
Cuba twenty-two leagues to the northwest, Jamaica forty-five leagues to the
southwest, and Puerto Rico about twenty leagues to the east-southeast. The native
Indian population, at the time of the discovery of the island, has been variously
estimated at from one to three millions. The aboriginal tribes have generally
been represented as a mild and hospitable race, and were governed by chiefs,
bearing the title of Caciques. The whole island appears to have been divided
into five different States, each one being ruled by a Cacique. With regard to
the primary origin of these ancient races, but little or nothing can be said
with certainty. It is, however, evident, that on their discovery by Columbus,
they were not what might be termed savages, but were rather a mild and interesting
people, possessing a certain type of civilization; and although greatly astonished
at the sight of their new visitors, they were quite disposed to receive them
well. We can, however, here only refer to history for the full details of all
the facts and circumnstances connected with the discovery of this island. It
would appear that the first rupture between the
Page 33
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 33 Indians and the Spaniards took place in 1493, at the
garrison left by Columbus some few leagues from Cape Iaytien, on his first departure
for Spain. History informs us that the Spaniards, having illtreated the Indians,
were fallen upon by them, and utterly exterminated. This unhappy event led to
all the rest of bloodshed and murder which afterwards took place between the
Spaniards and aboriginal habitants of Hayti,* thus showing how utterly vague
is all merely nominal Christianity, either in the form of national creeds or
otherwise. Various indications of gold having presented themselves, the love
of that idol was soon vehemently developed, and the unhappy Indians were ere
long dragged forth from the quiet of ages past, and as slaves, to which state
they were soon reduced, were comlpelled to hunt the worshiped metal, either
in the streams or mines. But the Indians of the tropics soon sunk beneath this
weight of woe, and even speedily disappeared, to the perpetual dishonor of their
rapacious, although nominally Christian masters. The use of the blood-hound,
it would seem, contributed much towards the bringing about of this fearful result;
hence we are informed, that even Columbus, on the 5th of April, 1494, when the
natives of Jamaica opposed his landing there, let loose a bloodhound upon them.
Justin Martyr, also, a well known name of those days, observes: " Our people
availed themselves of the blood-hound, in their struggles with natives."
t Such were the perverted views of Christianity in * T. Madiou. t Schelcher
on Hayti.
Page 34
34 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, that age; and yet it must be admitted, that there were
good Christian men among the Spanish clergy of that time, who had found their
way to the new world, and who also were faithful in their remonstrances against
the wanton cruelties then practiced. The great scarcity of hands for the working
of the gold mines which had been discovered, and other exhausting toils, which
were quickly imposed upon the Indians, soon originated the idea of seeking help
elsewhere; hence, Africa was thought of, from whence the white man delayed not
to drag by thousands the unhappy Africans from their ancient shores; and having
shackled both soul and body, promptly set his more hardy limbs to work, thus
soon lashing from him unbounded wealth. But the horrors of both Indian and Negro
slavery have now long been before the world, and it will not be necessary to
recapitulate them here, except as incidental circumstances, in the course of
narration, may render necessary; suffice it to say, for the present, that tile
wealth and splendor of St. Domingo, as the result of French slavery in after
days, were beyond compare, as to anything the West Indies had ever previously
known; but injustice of every kind ever carries with it the elements of self-destruction.
The arrival of the French in Hayti was gradual, and according to the united
testimony of history, commenced with a few adventurers, who settled themselves
on a small island,* about opposite the town, now called Port de Paix. They were
a class of men called fillibusters, or buccaneers. Their numbers gradually increasing,
they soon came into con* Latortue.
Page 35
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 35 tact with the Spaniards, who now had long been masters
of the whole island. Conflicts, fearful and destructive, were the result. There
is, however, reason to believe, that the French government sent out in the end
men capable of protecting their subjects; hence contests for territory soon
came on, which at last ended in taking possession of a portion of the main land,
and the ultimate establishment of the little town of Port de Paix, already alluded
to. This point once gained, it will be easily understood that encroachments
went on, until in the end, limits were formally agreed upon between the Spanish
and the French governments, and the island thus became divided into two colonies,
the French part bearing the name of St. Doningue, understood in English as St,
Domingo, which at that time was less than a third of the whole island. The elements
and resources of every kind of wealth being found on these fertile shores, the
active spirit of the French soon turned all to good account, and tlie result
of their industrial powers became a subject of both wonder and admiration, although
to the philanthropist, the whole of the West Indies and all tie' nations interested
in them, had tarnished their honor by the use of slavery. Horned cattle had
now long been introduced into Hayti by the Spaniards, and were, when the French
commenced their career in the island, quite abundant. The Spaniards had already
commenced the importation of Africans. Slavery had begun its horrid course,
and the French, like their predecessors in this foul scheme, from equal thirst
of wealth, drove
Page 36
36 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, on the fearful system with dreadful energy, so that
from about 1650, which was soon after the commencement of African slavery in
Hayti, till about 1737, the entire population of the French part of the island,
including all classes and colors, amounted to 600,000; and this, too, in an
age when the means of traveling and general transport were very far from the
facilities of the present day. Such, too, had been already the development of
the unbounded resources of this fertile land, that it soon acquired the distinguished
title of " Le Paradis des Franqais!"-so great was the wealth that
had been wrenched from the now annihilated Indian, and from the still lashed
and groaning African. But slavery had by this time become a thoroughly consolidated
system. The Spanish, English, French, and other nations, had forced its galling
yoke upon the whole of the West India islands. In the French part of the island,
the increased activity arising from an intense eagerness for wealth, brought
on all the cruelties peculiar to slavery, and this passion became more and more
intense: the exhaustless resources of the country were brought out, until in
the end, riches and luxury assumed a scale of even grandeur, as anay be seen
at the present day in the northern part of the present Ilaytian Republic, by
such remains of ancient seats as plainly indicate the style of former days,
when the positions of both high and low were almost fabulous in their extremes
of misery and ease. It is true that the French colonists frequently resided
on their foreign properties, and their homes and general establishments, therefore,
corresponded
Page 37
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 37 with their wealth and rank-a habit exceedingly advantageous
to the colony, making it as it did superior in production to the British colonies,
where absenteeism, as to land-holders, was the general rule. French and other
writers unite to give a glowing picture of St. Domingo, of which the details
would doubtless be interesting here; it will, however, for the present, be impossible
for us to enter into any of the particulars of the internal management of this
splendid colony, under the French; suffice it to say, that as to slavery, it
was carried out in all its fearful and revolting details, while at the same
time, the most rigid order was maintained throughout the entire system of things,
civil, military, and religious, as it then existed. But amidst all this luxurious
ease, so much sought and adored in the relaxing heat of the tropics, the instinctive
throes of oppressed humanity would sometimes shake the foundations of society,
a fact which ought to remind all posterity that truth and justice alone can
render our homes safe, or make the future bright. During the eighteenth century,
the seeds of fearful principles had not only taken root, but had risen up and
borne their awful fruit. France broke her ancient chains, but in her fury, she
confounded all order, and for a moment let loose upon herself overwhelming ruin.
The North American Colonies, under British rule, also rose, and asserted their
solemn resolution to be firee, and constitute themselves an independent people.
The convulsions necessarily associated with these gigantic efforts amongst mankind,
are always great; nor was it possible that such bold and mighty
Page 38
38 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, struggles for liberty, of every kind, should have been
without effect, on such a population as that which was now found in St. Domningue,
especially when it is remembered that the materials which made up the general
state of society at that time, were peculiarly liable to ignite and explode,
as will be easily understood when it is remembered, that in so many cases, thie
sons of the white colonists liad been sent to France by their fathers, for their
education, where they had acquired not only the general elements of literature,
but where they had imbibed the political life and spirit of the times, from
whlich such fearful and overwhelming storms broke forth. The simple but important
fact of an European education having been given to many of the sons of the French
colonists, should by no means be lost sight of in the history of this country,
for it may be truly regarded as a hinge, on which so much that is interesting
and important turned, in the general course of events which followed; it was,
in fact, the root and spring of Haytian manhood as a nation. It was in France
itself, therefore, let it be remembered, that the colored sons of IHayti learnt
to know what they were; there it was that they were taught, at the expense of
their own white fathers, residing in their native land, that they were men,
and that righteous heaven had made them heirs of liberty, without reference
to color or any other condition; and yet, on the return of these well-prepared
sons for liberty, their own fathers refused them those common rights of men,
for which they themselves had fitted them, and even despised their darker lhe.
That flames of discord should burst forth from such
Page 39
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 39 conflicting elements, cannot be at all surprising
to any who have read human history, or studied human nature. Tile case of Og0
will throw a melancholy light on this deeply interesting part of French colonial
history in St. Domingue. This individual, the colored son of a white colonist,
had, by his education in France, acquired a full sense and consciousness of
his dignity as a man, and on his return to his home, boldly demanded of the
colonial government his rights as such. It should be understood that tis demand
was not simply for himself, it was in the name of his fellows; but it was received
by those on whom it was made, both with contempt and indignation. Amock trial
was the result of this demand, and the end of this iniquitous proceeding, in
the name of law, was, that this unhappy, although noble minded man, was, with
another, led out to execution, and in open day, before the great church of this
noted city, was publicly, and with the most humiliating ceremonies, broken on
the wheel, his thighs, legs, arms, and loins, being broken by blows, inflicted
with heavy bars of iron. This disgraceful scene took place in the city of Cape
Haytien, on the 25th of February, 1791.* It is not surprising that the general
course of oppression, which led to the barbarous execution of Og6 and others,
should at last have roused and set fire to the fiercest passions of our nature.
This was, indeed, the case. Struggles and contests came on, and the passions
rose to fury, until opposing armies of mutual hate were formed. Nor was it to
be sup* T. Madiou's History of Hayti.
Page 40
40 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, posed that France would lose so splendid a colony,
without making the utmost effort to keep it. We therefore here give a statistic
sketch of the great armaments, and immense expense, so promptly and unsparingly
put forth by the home government, as the beginning of this dreadful struggle,
which has taken its place upon the page of history. The following statement
will enable us to form some idea of the forces sent fiom France to St. Domingo
during the years 1802 and 1803: FIRST EXPEDITION. Troops of all sorts, sent
from Brest, under command of Vilaret Joyeuse, on board eighteen-men-of-war.........
6,600 On the Lorient, and two others....................... 900 A squadron,
by Admiral Gauthcaume................. 4,000 A squadron, by Admiral Latouche....................
4,000 A squadron, by Admiral Linois........................ 2,000 A squadron
from Ilavre............................... 1,000 A Dutch squadron, Admiral Hurtzwitch...............
1,500 SECOND EXPEDITION. In June, " Expeditionnaire "..........................
1,600 On board the Formidable and Annibal................. 1,600 On board three
men-of-war, in August................ 4,000 On board the Vautour...............................
700 On board the Lodi................................. 2,000 On board the Egyptian..............................
2,570 On board the Prudent.............................. 512 On board the Jeanne
Edouard........................ 227 THIRD EXPEDITION. A division under Rochambeau........................
6,000 A division under Admiral Bedout..................... 6,000 On board several
men-of-war....................... 4,000 On board several vessels..........................
1,500 On board the fiigate Iiifatigable.................... 1,000
Page 41
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 41 LOSSES UNDER GENERAL LECLERC, During nine months,
according to statistics given by the French General, Pamphile Lacroix. Whites
of both sexes, murdered in various ways........ 3,000 General officers of all
sorts, by sickness or war......... 2,000 Soldiers slain in battle...............................
5,000 Soldiers lost by sickness.............................20,000 Sailors by
war and sickness......................... 8,000 Sailors of merchantmen, by war
and sickness........... 3,000 Men in Government employ, civil and military..........
Lost by war and disease............................. 2,000 Men engaged in commerce...........................
3,000 Natives killed in war................................ 0,800 Natives lost
by disease in Government service......... 1,800 Blacks and colored by war...........................
7,000 Blacks and colored, drowned and murdered, judicially... 4,000 In these
harrowing details, we see the price which it cost, not to retain, but to lose
this splendid colony The elements themselves fougllt against the Europeans;
in fact, that which sheds so deep a gloom on this already dark and melancholy
picture, is the unhappy fact, that the leading purpose of this mighty armament,
involving such an immense expenditure of gold, life, and suffering, was, not
to liberate mankind, and thus carry out the great principles of liberty, for
which France had convulsed all Europe, but it was a gigantic effort to re-enslave
those who, having already drank the gall and bitterness of bondage, were now
beginning to taste the sweets of liberty-France herself having declared all
men free and equal! So uncertain are even the greatest gusts of political winds,
which are raised by hollow and exaggerated principles. Doubtless, the climate,
which was so unfriendly to
Page 42
42 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, European constitutions, became a powerful weapon in
the hands of the Haytians against their enemies; and, like men of war, they
knew how to turn every means to their own advantage, which they most certainly
did in every conceivable manner. Yet it cannot be denied, that they fought bravely,
whenever necessity placed them in the front of their enemies, notwithstanding
their army was composed of men who had but just come forth from the withering
darkness of slavery. In fact, that an army composed of almost chaos itself,
should have shown phalanxes of good order and rigid discipline, was not to be
expected; still it is not to be denied that the Haytian arms, in connection
with the fiery elements of the tropics, etc., did confound and triumph over
solme of the best troops that ever left the shores of France. But the fact is;
that neither intelligence, discipline, or bravery, can successfully maintain
war against such deadly powers, especially when they are at the command of those
who are at home in them, who know well how to use them, and above all, who have
right on their side. Although it is not the design of this volume to enter fully
into the details of those sanguinary wars, by which the Haytians won their liberty,
it is but just to the memory of the brave that fell in this great struggle,
and also to those who nobly stood by them when they fell, to record those deeds
of valor, which in all ages have ever been appreciated and applauded. One narration
of this nature may be due to Hayti. This was the attack of the French army in
the affair of what is called " La crete A Pierrot." The place thus
named, was a fortification in the
Page 43
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 43 northern part of the island, which in itself was said
to have been comparatively insignificant, and was originally built, it would
appear, by the English, being situated about a mile from the village, in the
plain of the Artibomte, called " La Petite Riviere." One side of this
fortress is nearly perpendicular, while from the north and south the approaches
are difficult, and are covered with a considerable quantity of underwood, and
some large trees, under cover of which, the French made their attacks. Three
unsuccessful assaults were made by the French, in their attempts to take this
memorable fort. According to General Pamphile La Croix, who commanded one of
the divisions of the French army on that occasion, the attacking force amounted
fully to twelve thousand men, while the native garrison could not have been
more than twelve hundred, under the command of Le Chef de Brigade LamartiniBre.
The amount of the attacking forces in this affair would scarcely have been credible,
had not the account been transmitted to us by an evidently generous enemy in
the French army. The little army holding the fort against such fearful odds,
being sorely pressed, and very naturally despairing, resolved at last to sell
their lives as dear as possible, and therefore came to the final resolution
of cutting their way tllrough the superior forces of the French; hence they
rushed forth-their dash was furious; nearly one-half of them fell as they drove
through the ranks of their enemies, the remaining half victoriously joining
the main Black Army beyond. This feat is justly celebrated as a great and deadly
Page 44
44 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, one in Haytian history, and is admitted to be such
by the candid French military historian, already named, who was present at the
time, and who relates this extraordinary case, with a frankness which commands
admiration. This event took place in March, 1802.* Men of renown in arms, although
many of them without any other education than that which was imprinted on their
souls by the existing circumstances which surrounded them, had now risen up
in Hayti. Toussaint, Dessalines, Christophe, Petion, Rigaud, with many others,
were already high in military fame, and in that cause of independence which
long has been the glory of Hayti. They had all shown themselves to be no ordinary
men, having secured the liberties of an oppressed people by feats of valor and
renown. It may indeed be said, that they were men of fury and of blood, nor
is it to be denied that such was the case, although certainly not more so than
their opponents, whose arms, in this case, were tarnished by the defence of
an unrighteous cause, as well as much needless cruelty. Nevertheless, such were
the leading Haytian spirits of this remarkable epoch —men who had been
raised to their elevation in the affairs of their own people, by circumstances
over which they had had no control. Nor is it to be denied that they were singularly
fitted for their times and circumstances. They were indeed men of war, and therefore
they used the sword unsparingly, and without hesitation, whenever it was needed.
Nor let it be forgotten, that whatever barbarities were practiced, when the
passions rose, they * Mackenzie's Notes on Hayti.
Page 45
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 45 were only the imitations of an enemy with which they
had to contend, whose pretentions to superiority in all respects were sufficiently
great. It were, indeed, an easy task to show that the provocations of the Europeans
of those.times, in too many instances, consisted of the most barbarous atrocities
that ever tortured human nature. But the white man's provocations doubtless
commenced in the theft of human beings on the coasts of Africa, and were continued
through generations of such slavery as was never surpassed in cruelty and oppression
by either Egyptians, Greeks, or Romans. Here doubtless will be found the root
and origin of all Dessaline's fury and cruelty. Here, too, was the false starting-point
of those who brought superior minds and arms to this great contest; and if the
dignity of independence is to be judged by the extent of life, blood, and treasure,
laid down for it, then indeed will the merits of Haytian independence appear
to be great. But injustice and oppression have never, in the whole history of
mankind, failed ultimately to work out their own destruction. The Haytians,
therefore, in their wars, have simply shown themselves to be as other men, nor
will history fail to do them justice, for the leading minds among them at their
national birth, were evidently, in many respects, equal to some of the most
advanced spirits of that age, on the great questions of human rights and general
liberty. But war has not always been the only phase of Haytian existence; although,
like many other nations, this was the fiery element through which it rose into
form and power.
Page 46
46 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, For a moment, therefore, let us turn our thoughts back
to the commercial, educational, and religious interests of this remarkable community,
during its colonial existence, especially as many of the elements of the present
national peculiarities of Hayti are derived from the colonial regime, which
was certainly not without some few good and interesting features. With regard
to commerce, it can easily be understood that the great and exhaustless resources
of an incomparably fertile soil, together with an insatiable desire for wealth,
would certainly, with the power of life and death in hand, drive on industry
at a rapid, yea, fearful rate. In fact, the sum total of the produce of St.
Domingue became the wonder and admiration of Europe, although the thought but
rarely occurred in those days, that this was all iniquitously drawn from Africa.
But with this power in hand over a population of about 700,000, the result of
industry would be immense. It will not be astonishing, therefore, that in 1801,
the produce wasSugar of all sorts................ 18,535,112 lbs. Coffee..........................
43,220,270 " Cotton.......................... 2,480,340 " Logwood........................
6,768,634 Cocoa-Chocolate................ 648,518 " Sirup............................
99,419 " Gum............................ 75,519 " Indigo..........................
804 Mahogany........................ 5,217 ft. Besides which, an immense traffic
was carried on in skins and a variety of woods. In this year were found in the
French part of the islandHorses......................... 37,782 Mules..........................
48,852 Horned cattle................. 247,612 * Madiou's History.
Page 47
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 47 Such, in fact, was the amount of wealth, resulting
from the tremendous pressure of oppression, which the system of slavery brought
to bear upon the great mass of the slaves, that the aristocracy of the colony
lived in splendor seldom equaled, as may be seen by some of the French historians
of that day, as well as by the mansion-like remains, which are still standing
in the northern part of the present republic. But a system which outraged every
feeling of human nature, could not, in the nature of things, consolidate; sooner
or later, in such a case, all must change, either by reasonable or violent means.
On the subject of education, under the colonial dispensation, it will be easy
to conceive that anything like a really developed, or widely extended system
of tuition, would not even be thought of, simply because it was not compatible,
or even possible, with the existence of slavery. In fact, with any kind of despotism,
the one thing needful is ignorance. The elevation and instruction of every and
each individual in a community belongs rather to our own day. At the same time,
the various historians that have written on St. Domingue, inform us that education
was not altogether neglected in the colony, and that here and there were individuals
of both the clergy and others, who manifested more or less interest on this
subject. But in all such matters, we have simply to bear in mind the tendency
and spirit of the age. Still, there were even in those days, some few establishments
founded, for both monks and nuns, with doubtless good intentions; but the centres
of real good were indeed few, and their aims were
Page 48
48 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, limited. This indeed, at this time, was the case throughout
Europe; in fact, up to the end of the eighteenth century, even in the most advanced
portions of the civilized world, the education of the masses was rather dreaded
than sought. The great movement in Hayti did not, therefore, begin in a thirst
for knowledge, nor was it the offspring of a widely diffused or national education;
it was rather the effect of the French revolution, which was the great event
of that day, and which, notwithstanding all its horrors, nobly declared all
men to be free! Whether the fierce leaders of that astonishing convulsion of
humanity remembered that the deseendants of Africa in St. Domingue had ears
to hear, and hearts to feel, on this great question, need not now be discussed;
although it must be admitted, that the colored people of the French colonies
were honorably treated, and well received in France, as the representatives
of their people. On the subject of religion, although it was much more widely
diffused than education, yet that it was such as really regenerates the heart,
may be fairly questioned. On this subject, two things are to be noted: First,
that the ceremonies and general ritual of the church of Rome prevailed, as far
as Christianity was concerned. Secondly, that African superstitions were believed
and practiced to an awful extent. In fact, to enter fully into detail on this
question, would require a volume of no ordinary size, and would most certainly
bring out some awful developments. Certain it is,
Page 49
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 49 that the presence and pernicious influence of African
superstitions was the constant complaint of the colonial writers. Doubtless
there were in this colonial community many well intentioned people. But the
foundations of society here were wrong, and the very structure of things was
incompatible with true Christian principle. One of the leading superstitions
introduced from Africa was Vandouism, of which the presiding god is called Vandoux.
The disciples of this creed are generally formed into organized and united societies,
which are bound by solemn oath to secrecy. We are informed by a French writer*
that the word Vandoux is said to mean, in the African sense, an almighty, omnipresent,
and omniscient being. We are also informed that this being is represented by
a snake or serpent, not venomous. But whatever may have been the original meaning
of the word in question, it is impossible to suppose it to have been so understood
by the Africans themselves, unless we are to understand it as a proof, that
an advanced state of civilization at one time existed in Africa-an idea in perfect
harmony with much that has been said of the main divisions of the huWmn family.
But the ceremonies and rites connected with the Vandoux worship, are minutely
detailed by the author last referred to. They are painfully interesting, and
lead to thie inevitable conclusion, that the climax of the system is immorality
and perdition.t * Morau St. Mery. t The Vandoux dance, in which both sexes engaged-frequently
under the influence of intoxicating drinks-would lead on to a sort of religious
phrenzy, which terminated in the greatest obscenities.
Page 50
50 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, Such was the general state of things under the colonial
system in St. Domingue. Commerce and wealth were abundant, but all was the effect
of brutal force, and not the happy fruit of spontaneous industry;-literature
and education, with very little exception, being excluded. The details of this
unhapy state of things, as here given, are not indeed minute. But perhaps enough
has been said, for our general guidance, in forming our ideas on the question
in hand, and to enable us to see that the forming materials for this nation
consisted principally of masses of human beings, which had been brought over
by ship loads from Afiica, each mind being steeped in foul and gloomy superstitions,
which had been handed down from generation to generation, for many ages past,
unaccompanied by any ray of light, on any really good and useful subject. True,
the imported Africans now found themselves in contact with light and intelligence,
which they had never known before. But in the case of their now white masters,
the melancholy fact stands clearly out, that religion and knowledge were wielded
as mighty powers, to awe the enslaved masses into the degrading belief, that
they were really inferior beings. Nor is it to be questioned, that this ruling
idea, so essential to the security of an unrighteous power, was worked out and
acted upon, until all sense of manhood was at last annihilated, together with
every noble feeling, even of their former savage state; all was degradation,
both to the high and to the low. Hence the whole course of things was ruinous
to all parties; the master dared from
Page 51
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 51 fear, and the bondman submitted from the same base
motive, until all was error, tyranny, and corruption. Such a people seizing
their liberty, and wresting it by force of arms, from an enemy vastly superior
to themselves, would inevitably involve the necessity of a military system,
as the only means under such circumstances of protecting their liberty. They'Lad
indeed beaten off their enemy, but there was reason to believe that his purpose
was to re-enslave, as was evident in the case of some of the other French colonies,
where slavery had been recommenced. Hence the sword, which had become the deliverer,
became the protector, and ultimately, the ruler of the nation. Justice, therefore,
compels us to admit, that the character and style of the Ilaytian Republic,
as to public institutions, were formed under the most unhappy circumstances;
and it might perhaps safely be said, that this nation stands alone as to the
circumstances of its origin and formation. Nevertheless, there were among the
originators of Haytian independence, minds well formed, and of enlarged views,
as to what a free people ought to be, as may be understood from the fact already
mentioned, that many of the sons of the colonists had received their education
in France. Yet it will be easily understood, that these men, with their educational
advantages, were greatly embarrassed by a mass of ignorance, of which they were
greatly in advance, and yet without which they could not act, although they
could not in all cases control them. It is, however, an extraordinary fact,
that even from the uneducated masses of those days, men would almost suddenly
appear, who often seemed
Page 52
52 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, to be singularly fitted for the work, which divine
Providence evidently meant them to accomplish in behalf of their people. The
spirit of the French revolution, with its general bearing, became well known
to and understood by the Haytians; but the details of its influence and general
working upon this infant people, must be left to the future historians of events
relating to Hayti. We, however, must not lose sight of the revolutionary spirit,
which thus innoculated this nation from its very birth, and which, from want
of the habit of free and open discussion, political or otherwise, have been,
in a certain sense, the only safety-valves of the nation. From the general working
of circumstances and events, rose that remarkable man, Toussaint L'Ouverture,
who as a slave, faithfully served his kind master, Mons. Bayou, as coachman.
Toussaint, in gratitude to his benefactor, who had given him more or less education,
not only aided him in his flight to the United States, but also in supporting
him in his exile there; and being then at liberty, joined the insurgents under
Jean Franqois, by whom he was rapidly promoted. Tonssaint, in this case it would
seem, simply fought for royalty, under the impression that it was the form of
government best suited to his people. This royalist party was then in connection
with Spain. But Tonssaint L'Ouverture soon left the Spanish service, and was
accepted by the French General Laveaux, by whom he was made a general. Tonssaint
was soon recognized as a man of great ability, and as such, his influence over
the blacks would
Page 53
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 53 naturally be very great. He now promoted the French
interests, and soon drove the Spaniards in all quarters. Ultimately Toussaint
L'Ouverture was invested, by the French Commissioners, with the office and dignity
of General-in-Chief of St. Domingue. The conviction that the French were sincere
in their declarations as to Liberty, doubtless won Toussaint back to them: On
the 14th of February, 1794, entire liberty to all men was proclaimed by the
French Republic, intentionally involving the abolition of slavery, and this
was ratified by the reception of Black and Colored Deputies, which were sent
from St. Domingue to represent that branch of the French Empire; nor should
this remarkable circumstance, connected with the great French Revolution, be
lost sight of, or slightly passed over; for it ought to be remembered that nations,
which in those days made far greater pretentions to Christianity than Revolutionary
France, then, and even long after, held men in chains. The declaration in France
of universal liberty was, in this case, practically carried out; and the proof
of sincerity, at least in the dominant party of the day, with regard to the
entire equality of mankind, was seen in the great fact that all shades of color,
as Representatives from St. Domingue, took their seats with their White Brethren,
now their recognized and acknowledged equals, as in fact they were in intelligence,
civilization, and education. Whatever horrors, therefore, distinguished the
unparalleled convulsion produced by the French Revolution of the latter part
of the last century, the
Page 54
54 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE) recognized equality of mankind, on the subject of color,
was an honor which no other nation, however Christian, had at that time acquired,
and which, even at this day, we are compelled to applaud, at least as to all
who were really sincere in this matter; for, it must be admitted that subsequent
events proved but too clearly that they were only a portion, however powerful,
of the French nation whose views were thus liberal. The French Commissioners
in the Colony of St. Domingue, it should be stated, had, in an hour of alarm,
proclaimed the Emancipation of the Slaves, wvlo were now in great excitement
from fear of being again re-enslaved; but, under the power and influence of
Toussaint, as General-in-Chief, they were soon marshalled into a body of industrious
free laborers. Up to a late period of his life, Toussaint remained faithful
to the French, who long were indebted tohis unlimited influence over the masses;
but he was also inflexibly true to the great cause of Liberty; yet his fidelity
to France is seen in the fact, that while he served the French, he maintained
and kept up the produce, prosperity, and general industry of the country; a
fact which, in connection with the undeniable injustice and oppression of the
White Colonists, throws the guilt of all the blood which was shed in the Revolutionary
struggles of St. Dominguc upon the Whites; who, by plain honesty and impartial
justice, might have saved their lives, their country, and their fame. During
the time of Toussaint L'Ouverture, the English had been called in from Jamaica
by the
Page 55
FROM HISTOEICAL NOTES. 55 French White Planters, and they soon began to display
their power, ultimately establishing themselves at Port-au-Prince and other
places; but their military force was always comparatively small, and they at
last evacuated; to this day, however, several forts, in various parts of the
country, are pointed out as having been built by the English. It is said by
a French author * that the British, during their stay in the country, offered
Toussaint to create him King, and to sustain his Independence; this, however,
he is said to have declined, notwithstanding he was, like most men, ambitious
of power; while at the same time the sending of his two sons to France for their
education, strongly indicated his entire fidelity to that country, and that
he did not aspire to anything beyond the honors which he then enjoyed, and of
which he had shown himself worthy. In 1805, Toussaint decided on extending his
rule through the Southern part of St. Domingue, where General Rigaud had long
presided as Military Chief. Toussaint having the masses with him, and being
himself popular, it was, perhaps, to be expected that Rigaud's party should
disappear, although headed by a man of no ordinary character. Toussaint prevailed,
and having thus made himself master of the whole of the French part of the Island,
hd now narched upon the city of Santo Domingo, the ancient city of the Spanish
part of HIayti; here also his arms were victorious, so that the extent of his
Empire was the entire length and breadth of the Island; his rule was severe
and rigid; indeed, one Haytian historian speaks of him as having been exceedingly
cruel. t * Pamphile la Croix. t St. Reny de Cayes.
Page 56
56 tAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, There is, indeed, something significant in the two
last named campaigns; a full narration of them would, doubtless, be exceedingly
interesting; that they had a definite object in view is not to be doubted, hut
notwithstanding the well demonstrated honor of Toussaint, the suspicions of
Napoleon were probably roused by his great successes and power, as in fact became
quite apparent in the end. After the conquest of the city of Santo Domingo,
Toussaint convoked an " Assemblee Constituante," composed of the leading
Generals of his army; from this body emanated a document in the form of a Constitution,
the proclamation of which was offensive to Napoleon I., who, on hearing of it,
declared that Toussaint, by this act, had thrown off the mask and drawn the
sword from the scabbard for ever. How he could have arrived at such a conclusion,
is difficult to understand; Toussaint having, in all good faith, sent him a
copy of all the proceedings for his examination and approval; the French, however,
from this time ceased to consider Toussaint true to them. That the rule of Toussaint
L'Ouverture should have been harsh and severe, is not astonishing, for he had
resolved to keep up the produce of the Island, and having himself been trained
to do this by brutal force, he probably deemed it the only means of accomplishing
his purpose; nor are we to lose sight of the fact, that he could not be expected
to have had any really correct idea of free Institutions or free Government.
Toussaint, however, remained true to the French as long as they themselves remained
faithful to the
Page 57
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 57 leading principles of their own great Revolution,
in relation to universal Liberty; nor is it to be supposed that his own nature
could go beyond this; but on the arrival of the last army sent by Napoleon I.,
under General Leclerc, the suspicions and fears of the Haytians were greatly
excited by the fact, that while the highest pretensions and the strongest assurances
were made as to sustaining the liberties of the Haytians, the other French West
India Colonies had been again reduced to slavery. Here, then, was fearful reason
for any change which might show itself in Toussaint. HIe was faithful to the
liberty which the French Revolution had proclaimed, and he was resolved to maintain
it; but the French Islands of Guadaloupe and Martinique having been again compelled
to bow to the iron yoke of slavery, he concluded that it was impossible that
the richer colony of St. Dolningue should remain free. There was great dignity
in the stand of the noble hearted Toussaint L'Ouverture for Liberty; nor will
the true historian of IIayti fail to give him all due honor; while posterity
will never cease to deplore that lie was seized by order of General Brunet,
put on board a French man-of-war, and carried off to France, where he was thrown
into the Fortress of Joux, in the Department of Jura. Toussaint L'Onverture
was taken on the 11tll of February, 1802 and died, it is said, of starvation
in the month of April the following year, within the walls of the above-nanied
fortress.
Page 58
CHAPTER II. French cruelty to Haytians.-Dessalines proclaims Independence.-800
Whites fall at St. Marks.-Ferrand's Proclamation.Dessalines marches on Santo
Domingo.-Viet flogged to death. Dessalines retreats.-Christophe carries off
hundreds.-Dlessalines shot.-"I L'Assemblee Constituante"-Report to
Christophe on Petion's Constitution.-Christophe marches on Port an Prince.-The
Republican's routed.-Christophe retreats.-The Senate provides for Northern exiles.-Laws
of Christophe on Marriage, etc.-" Ou'peut on este mieux," etc.-The
two States compared. —Rebecca Port de Paix. —Lamarre Gardel, etc.
—Gen. Borgella joins the Republic.-Christophe proclaimed King.Christophe's
Cruelty to his Servant.-The Constitution read by every Haytian. The great primeval
chaos of the earth Compared with that which from foul passions bursts, Was order!
TiE French now having the strongest assurance that the blacks of St. Domingo
were fully bent on maintaining their freedom, gave way to every evil passion,
perpetrating the greatest atrocities, and the foulest barbarities; hence the
pangs through which this infant people rose to independence were indeed great.
They, however, helped to form the nation, and compelled its independence. The
unhappy IIaytians were seized, and drowned by hundreds in the hlarbors; others
were shot, bayoneted, or gibbeted, until hate, anger, and revenge had reached
their horrid climax.
Page 59
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 59 In 1802, Petion and Clairveaux revolt from the French,
and are soon joined by Dessalines, whose superior authority was recognized by
Petion, and lie soon became General. The black and colored people were now finally
resolved on liberty, but the horrors of their struggle wele great. All parties
became furious. The French had now yielded to the despair of their threatened
and exciting position, their mortified passions rose high, and this soon brought
on the pitiless and retaliating massacre of the whites by Dessalines, whom the
fearful circumstances of the times had turned into a fury. The details of the
mutual cruelties of all parties are fully entered into by the HIaytian historian
already referred to, whose work has been officially acknowledged by the Ilaytian
Government as authentic.* Nothing could be more deplorable than the state of
things at this time, as described by the historian just referred to; indeed
it is impossible not to read ill it the simple truth that right, whether civil,
political, or religious, cannot be trampled upon with impunity; sooner or later,
if not in one generation, in another, a fearful reckoning comes on, for man
is destined to rise to the dignity of right, nor can mere shades of color hinder
it. The year 1803 was rendered remarkable by the entire breaking up of the French
power in Iayti; the now roused indignation of an incensed people, led on by
able and daring men, who had justice on their side, and were true to the great
and righteous cause * Madiou (Fils.)
Page 60
60 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE of liberty, proved to be too much for the abettors of
slavery, although backed by all that France could do; nor is it for a moment
to be doubted that the utmost efforts of a great people were here brought out,
for St. Domingue had now long been the " Paradis des Francais," and
it was not to be supposed that it would be given up without a struggle. The
bravery and energy of Dessalines were great, and he was very naturally considered
by the HIaytians to be the great hero of the day; but he had been inured to
slavery, tyranny, and blood, nor had his mind been softened by education; yet
he was the man for the moment, and he had risen to eminence amongst his fellows
by military feats which had swept away the enemies of liberty. This man, fearing
neither France nor all the legions she had sent forth, or the yet greater she
might still send, on the 1st of January, 1804, in the city of Ganaives, solemnly
and fearlessly proclaimed the independence and sovereignty of the Haytian people,
and at the same time abolished for ever the name of St. Domingue, as a name
which would only bring to remembrance the deepest horrors, and re-established
the aboriginal name of Iayti. Thus singularly did a comparatively weak people
triumph by the mere justice of their cause-a people which probably it would
have been easier for France to have annihilated than to have subdued. Thus too
may it be said that slavery received its first great blow in modern days; and
as far as Hayti is concerned, 1801 may be considered as an epoch of no ordinary
note. The fact is, that the honor of the
Page 61
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 61 first great shock to this gigantic evil of modern
times, is due to IHayti. Hayti thus dared the fiends of all the earth; They
fled before the glory of her birth. Dessalines, in the giddy whirl of victory,
declared himself an emperor. It is, however, worthy of note, that he created
neither nobility nor privileged class of any kind. True, indeed, the vanity
of this extraordinary step was quite enough without it. His rule was marked
by the fierceness of his nature; nor can it be for a moment surprising that
such a man should have been in an exclusive sense fitted for this one great
object, viz., that of defying France, by sweeping slavery for ever from the
shores of Hayti, and proclaiming the sovereignty and independence of his country;
thus boldly starting the great principle that independence is the dignity of
any people, to which God has given in any sense or manner a special destiny.
The barbarous drowning and gibbeting of the Haytians by the whites, doubtless
provoked their wholesale murder by the infuriated Dessalines, under whose relentless
sword men, women, and children, in the town and neighborhood of St. Mark's,
fell-both the provocation and revenge remaining as foul blots upon the page
of history; so true it is that in all senses we reap that which we sow. Eight
hundred of all ages, and of both sexes, are said to have been swept off, at
one fell swoop, by the ever-memorable Dessalines, at the last-named place. These
dreadful events are minutely brought out
Page 62
62 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, by the faithful historian; nor will truth and justice
spare the guilty, of whatever color or people. In 1805, the French General Ferrand,
tlen colnmalnding the city of Santo Domingo, the capital of the Spanish part
of the island, issued a proclamation, by which all Spaniards living on the frontier
were empowered to reduce to slavery any of the IHaytians which they might be
able to capture. Tlhe natural effect of this iniquitous measure was the wrath
and indignation of Dessalines, who immediately decided on marcling against the
ancient Spanish capital, and without provisioning his army, he arranges everything
for departure; pillage, therefore, would become the only means of subsistence
for this army of 30,000 men. This too was intended by Dessalines as in some
sense puhitive, although it unquestionably suited the poverty of his resources.
The country through which this mass of men had to march, was in many places
mountainous and rugged, and frequently without anything worth calling a road.
The troops from the extreme west end of the island had not less than 193 leagues
to march, before reaching Santo Domingo. In addition to other difficulties,
it must be remembered that, in the Spanish part of the island, several formidable
rivers would have to be forded, or crossed in large ferries, bridges being out
of the question; but this numerous army was driven through every difficulty
and privation by the brutal proclamation of Ferrand, which, as might be supposed,
had produced a fearful effect. In due time they arrived at the well-known pass
between two mountains, in the neighborhood of
Page 63
FROM IIISTORICAL NOTES. 63 Azua, where a few well-directed cannons might defy
even a powerful army. Here Ferrand considered that the Haytians would certainly
be entombed. Instead of this, however, to the great astonishment of the French
and Spaniards, they took the Fort, which it was thought would have commanded
everytling, in such a position. Many prisoners were taken by the IHaytians on
this occasion, and aionog them the commandant of the Fort which commanded this
pass, named Viet, who was brought before Dessalines, and was recognized as an
old colonist, who had been exceedingly cruel on his plantation. This unfortunate
man was ordered by the Emperor to be flogged to death, which was no sooner done,
than a Haytian soldier opened his breast with one stroke of the axe, and taking
out his heart, devoured it before the army. The man that did this abominable
deed, was fiomn a cannibal tribe in Africa. Such an act was indeed horrible
to think of; and yet it is a humiliating fact that during the French Revolution
of 1792, cases of furiously devouring human blood a'e recorded. Dessalines entered
Azua on the 1st of March, and on tlhe following 4th of the same month, he challenged
Ferrand under the walls of Santo Domingo. Christophe's division had had to contend
with the French and Spanisl forces, before reaching the main body of the army.
The force of all arms in the city could not have been more-if even so many-than
5,000; but the HIaytians had no artillery, and could not therefore contend witl
the heavy pieces of this ancient Span
Page 64
64 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, ish fortification, which the besieged did not fail
to use furiously against the besiegers. Soon, however, great murmuring commenced
against the French General in Santo Domingo, in consequence of a great want
of provisions in tle city. But help soon arrived, and Dessalines hearing that
Ferrand still expected more, called a council of war, in which it was decided
that the assault on the city should be commenced on the 26th of March, which
indeed took place; but Dessalines, fearing that French forces were landing on
other parts of the island, and despairing of success against an artillery to
which he had none to oppose, raised the siege and withdrew, laying everything
in his retreat under fire and sword. Christophe, as he advanced with his retreating
columns to the north, set fire to St. Jago, it is said with his own hands, and
ordered the butchery of twenty priests, who were found in the buryingground
of the place. The Haytian historian * also informs us that this General, during
his retreat, took with hin 349 men, 430 male children, and 318 girls, who had
been doubtless captured wherever they could be found. The siege had continued
some twenty days. But the empire of Dessalines-which had begun on the 8th of
October, 1805-was destined to be of short duration. Although he had been the
most daring friend of his country against its enemies, disgust and impatience
at his tyranny soon ripened into revolution, respecting which Dessalines is
said to have declared that the entire south-where in all * T. Madiou (Fils.)
Page 65
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 65 probability this revolt against him originatedshould
be drenched in blood, and left a desert, where not even a cock should be heard
to crow! On the 17th of October, 1806, Dessalines left Arcahaie, where he liad
arrived from Marchand, his favorite retreat, in the neighborhood of the town
of St. Mark's, on his way to Port au Prince, his object being to put down the
rebellion against his governmnent which had just commenced, not doubting for
a moment of success. Arriving at " Pont Rouge," a bridge within half
a mile of Port au Prince, and which he reached about 9 A. Ax., on the last mentioned
date, he found himself surrounded by a revolutionary army, which had decided
on his destruction. When the two parties met, a confused conflict took place,
in which he was picked out by one in the opposing ranks, and shot. Thus fell
the founder of Iaytian independence, and it will be for posterity to judge the
case of this first revolution recorded in Ilaytian history. The death of Dessalines,
just or unjust, was doubtless brought on by the despotic course which he had
pursued with his own people, who, had he only been just, would have made him
their idol. His very looks are said to have inspired terror. Daring to the utmost,
he doubtless was the right man to defy France, and break its iron yoke. After
his death, some cut off his fingers; others took the ornaments from his person;
such was the eagerness to have some relic of this extraordinary man. A Constitution
had been drawn up under Dessalines, which was considered to be suited to the
times and circumstances of Hayti. The main thing, or
Page 66
66 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, rather the most prominent feature, in the National
charter thus drawn up, was the article which was then justly deemed indispensable
to the national identity and independence of Hayti, viz., that the whites should
be excluded, as land proprietors, fiom the territory of Hayti-a measure only
in harmony with that day, and can now be viewed only as a necessary evil. Exclusiveism
can never, indeed, be considered as the order of God, and hence can never be
perpetuated, without ultimately bringing on the ruinous effects of stagnation;
free moral currents must sweep through all the earth, nor can it be doubted
that this grand day of safe, healthy, and universal freedom is coming on. It
is indeed to be deplored that the internal storms and conflicts of this small,
but now independent nation, did not terminate with the political exectuion of
Dessalines. This, however, was not the case. Yet far greater difficulties were
in the future. The epoch now before us seems to have been a hinge upon whlich
the hopes of the nation turned. It was indeed a critical moment. Nothing, however,
is more deceptive than human nature. Peace might have been looked for even at
this critical juncture of affairs; but so long as it is not a principle in the
human heart to covet the lowest place, rather than the highest, the assurance
of peace must remain shaken. The highest place in this young nation, which was
but just starting into life, was even already too much adored, and there were
many who thought themselves equally entitled to and capable of all the power,
dignity, and honor which this country could offer.
Page 67
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 67 General Christophe was now a prominent character on
the stage of HIaytian affairs-he also having been renowned for his daring against
the French. Hence, after the death of Dessalines, he was named by a military
council, not only as commander of all the forces, but as the provisional chief
of the nation. This honor was conferred upon him provisionally, until the National
Assembly should be called. This great meeting was to be called " L'Assemblee
Constituante," and was invested with authority by the same originating
source as clothed Christophe himself with the power and dignity which he had
received-whiclh was doubtless the first Senatorial body. This great "Assemblee
Constuante," which must be considered, historically, as one of the starting
points of free and constitutional government in HIayti, took place on the 18th
of December, 1806 in the cathedral church of the capital, which at that time
was Port au Prince. Christophe's residence was in the northern part of the island,
at Cape Haytien. His ideas of government were well known to be in favor of great
powers and prerogatives confided to the Executive. In fact, it is probable that
he had inherited from Toussaint L'Ouverture the idea of a monarchical form of
govern - ment; for although the latter is said to have declined a crown of British
offer, and under British protection, yet it is probable that if lie had remained
in Hayti, he might ultimately have become an independent monarch-there having
been great reason to believe that his ideas ran lmuch in this channel. On this
subject, Christophe's views had been gathered from his general conversations.
But in the West, where General Petion
Page 68
68 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, resided, all was enthusiastically in favor of Republicanism.
In these two great facts-the difference of political views and principles between
Petion and Christophe-doubtless commenced the unhappy division between the northern
and the western portions of the French part of Hayti. Republican views and feelings,
it would appear, prevailed in the National Assembly, notwithstanding the agents
of Christophe were many, ald his power and influence very great. After much
warm and even violent discussion, a constitution was finally drawn up, on the
most liberal principles, and Christophe was chosen President of the Republic
of Hayti, for four years. In this constitution, the articles excluding the whites
as land owners, was continued, and the Roman Catholic religion was recognized
as being that of the Ilaytian nation, without any reference to other creeds,
in the way of toleration. During the framing of this constitution, one named
Juste Ugonin is said to have written to Christophe, and to have observed to
him that if he accepted it, he would have no more power than a corporal! On
the 27th of December, 1806, the final meeting of" L'Assemblee Constituante"
took place. All was anxiety; and an ably drawn up Introduction to it was read
by General Bonnet, who was a man of known ability; and this highly important
national document, which had absorbed the attention of its framers until after
sunset, was by them, amidst high hopes and expectations, signed by candle-light.
It is a remarkable fact that it had been proposed to hlold this important National
Assembly at Cape
Page 69
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 69 Haytien; but Christophe, having all confidence in
his own power and influence, opposed the proposition, lest it should afterwards
be said that he had in any way influenced their decision; yet he never scrupled
to make it known that if the new Constitution should not suit him, he would
reject it. In fact, his love of rigid and oppressive rule was already known,
and even felt, as will appear from the fact that desertions from the northern
army to the western had already commenced, and were not even unconmon, which
Christophe hearing of, would, as commander-in-chief of the forces, send to Petion,
at Port au Prince, requesting that such men should be sent back to join their
regiments; but his messages were generally coolly received, and severe letters
passed between these distinguished Generals on the subject. Christophe was kept
well informed of all that was passing at the capital; and on hearing the general
character and bearing of the Constitution just drawn up, he unwisely concluded,
that being the responsible President of a Republic, he might at last, like Dessalines,
fall under the power of the people. His rash and final conclusion, therefore,
was to march at once upon Port au Prince. This decision formed, he issued a
proclamation, in which he accused Petion and the Generals of the western part,
of having so arranged matters with regard to the framing of the Constitution,
and organization of the Republic, as to have all power in their hands, with
a view, ultimately, to reduce the whole nation under the yoke of their own power,
hence he calls upon the people to take up arms in defence of their liberties,
and at the same time promises full and free plunder to the army.
Page 70
70 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, We therefore find ourselves here at the starting point
of innumerable evils for Hayti. Christophe was legitimately at the head of the
nation; this was fully and fairly recognized by all; there was no disposition
anywhere to deprive him of any honor that was due to him. But the plain fact
seems to be that he had resolved to hold all power, and to be without control,
notwithstanding there were many at tnat time who were his superiors as to mind
and education. Posterity, therefore, must and will blame this man as a despot,
both in his principles and passions. IIayti as a nation cannot here be blamed.
All had been well arranged; in fact the nation had in the most open and legitimate
manner chosen a Republican form of government, and they had accorded to the
right man its highest honor; but he chose to be a despot, and rose in arms against
his own people; nor is there anything here but what was in harmony with the
general history of mankind, however much to be deplored. On the 26th of December,
1806, Christophe was at St. Malk's, about half way to Port an Prince from the
Cape, with an army of 18,000 men. Petion left Port an Prince on the 1st of January,
1807, with some 3,000 men. He probably reckoned on increasing his army as he
proceeded through the country; but arriving at a place called Sibert, which
was a plantation, these opposing armies met, and a contest fierce and terrible
commenced, between men and brothers, who not long since had been firmly united
against their common foe. Petion was entirely routed, his General's hat rendering
him a mark at which the enemy had already
Page 71
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 71 eagerly aimed. A young officer named Jerome Coutilien
Coutard, snatched it from Petion's head, and putting it on himself, saved his
General, who had seriously began to think of committing suicide, under the impression
that he was about to be taken prisoner. The young officer, however, fell a victim
to his noble feelings of devotion, while Petion, with one or two more, escaped,
and reaching the sea shore, a canoe which was standing off came at his call,
and took him from the Arcaliaic side of the great bay of Port au Prince, to
the opposite side, within a few miles of the capital, where his fate was not
yet known. Some feared le had been killed, while others feared he had been taken
prisoner. In the mean time, Petion's army had collected at Port au Prince, having
been hotly pursued by Christophe, so that the battle now raged outside of Port
au Prince. General Yayou had taken (provisionally) Petion's place, and maintaining
his ground, had kept off the enemy during the whole of that day; but the next
day Petion himself appeared, and was received with great joy and enthusiasm
as their beloved head. The struggle between Christophe and the Republicans was
great, but all turned and was decided in favor of the latter. Even women and
children are said to have helped, from sheer dread of the name of Christophe,
so entirely was this man's name associated with the idea of horror. This great
contest commenced at 3 A. M., on the 6th of January, 1807; and on the 8th, the
arms of Christophe having totally failed, were on their way back to the north,
leaving the Republicans in posses
Page 72
72 HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE, sion of their capital,' their constitution, and their
liberty. At an early period in Haytian history, a military chief named Goman,
in the South, occupied an important position, and occasioned much anxiety and
trouble to the legitimate rulers of this Republic. But the details of this matter
would be impossible; for the present it must suffice simply to mention the fact
of such a case, and refer for the details to the larger histories of IIayti.
IIere, then, we come to the complete, and for the present final division of
this small, and but lately self-liberated nation-a separation which was evidently
occasioned by tile determination of one man to subdue a nation to his own views
of government. No unknown rock, this, of pride and vanity, but one on which
many of the mightiest of the earth have dashed themselves to pieces. Christophe
not unnaturally thought that his adversary, Petion, would have pursued him.
This, however, was not the case; and for this the conquering General was severely
reproved by General Gerin, who declared that had Petion appeared in the North
at that moment, the people would certainly have joined the arms of the Republic.
But Petion's opinion was, that Christophe's ferocity would soon ruin him, and
that any further effusion of blood was needless. Christophe, left thus to himself,
re-took Arcahaic, by a division under General Larose. The people of this place
were well known to be altogether Republican in their preferences, and therefore
by this monarchical General they were given up to be pillaged, and several among
the most prominent of
Page 73
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 73 this village were sent on to Marchand, where Christophe
had halted with his troops, and were there executed by his orders. Christophe,
intending to make his seat of Government at Cape Haytien, transported all the
wealth which Dessalines had amassed to his intended capital, from whence he
issued an address to the inhabitants of the North, in which lie promises liberty,
warns the enemies of his cause, and urges the people to give themselves frlly
to industry of every kind. At Port au Prince, the Senate had assembled, and
appointed General Petion to the maintenance of order in the Western Departments;
General Gerin being at the same time, and by the same authority, charged with
the command of the South. Several of the representatives from the North, having
voted in " L'Assemblee Constituante" for the Republic, could not consequently
return to their homes; and being therefore involved in loss and difficulty,
their cases were taken into consideration by the Senate, and suitable provision
was made for them, while at the same time Christophe was declared to be entirely
outlawed, and the Constitution which he had rejected was adopted, and proclaimed
with all due solemnity. This important and memorable event took place on the
27th of Dec., 1806. The power of the Senate thus established, they at once sent
a military force, under command of Petion, to re-take Arcahaie for the Republic,
for which it was well known that place was inclined. This undertaking was successful;
and many of the Northern troops, who had been taken prisoners on this occasion,
became citizens of the Republic. But Petion
Page 74
74t HAYTIAN INDEPENDENCE) hearing of a revolt in the Southern part of the Island,
deemed it prudent to return promptly to Port an Prince; notwithstanding the
army demanded to be led on from Ascahaie to St. Mark's, which he considered
would simply involve the shedding of blood uselessly, and therefore persisted
in his purpose to return to the capital. Petion, however, did attempt to win
over Christophel's principal General, Larose, by addressing him a letter, but
the Northern General tore it up without even reading it. Petion being now returned
to Port an Prince, the Senate sent a strong force to subdue the revolt in the
South, and to re-establish order there; after whiich this legislative body proceeded
to the regulation of the general finances of the State, on which subject General
Bonnet read to the Senate a long and able address. During this time, Christophe
sent back a military force to Arcahaie, the only object of which was to entirely
destroy that place. The inhabitants fled to the woods, but were pursued by a
furious soldiery, whose orders were nothing less than extermination.* These
unhappy people had fallen victims to the fury of Christophe, simply because
they were well known to be sincerely attached to the Republic. General Gerin
an'd his party, in this case also, reproached Petion for having suffered this
massacre to take place, while he had 10,000 men at his disposal; nor indeed
is it easy to understand such a seeming neglect. Christophe now began to organize
his affairs, and a Constitution promptly appeared, in which Hlavti is * Madiou.
Page 75
FROM HISTORICAL NOTES. 75 declared to be a State, with a President at the head.
This Constitution was inaugurated with great pomp and ceremony; and General
Christophe, who was now Chief Magistrate of the new State, attended the "
Te Deum " which was sung in the Church at Cape Ilaytien, at the close of
which the new functionary received the Inost flattering felicitations of the
people at large, and especially of his Generals. It is indeed remarkable that
a man whose fierce and unfeeling character had already manifested itself, should
have become so popular; but he was known to have enlarged views of things, hence,
with all his defects, he was at that time considered an extraordinary man; and
what ultimately in him degenerated into ferocity, was in the commencement of
his career great and unusual energy. On the 25th of February, 1807, Christophe's
Council declared its powe